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THE PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 



A 

TEXT-BOOK 

FOR 

AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE 




BY 

GLENN NEWTON MERRY 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF PUBLIC SPEAKING 
UNIVERSITY OF IOWA 



COPY NUMBER 



3 CLIO PRESS 

CITY, 

1920 






DEDICATED 

TO 

L. K. M. 



©CI.A561778 

Copyright 1920 
Glenn Newton Merry 



CONTENTS 

Page 
Summary of Principles . . . . . . . . iv 

Preface ix 

Introduction xi 



Chapter I 
Attention and Interest 1 



Chapter II 
Effective Speaking 29 

Chapter III 
Outline Arrangement 50 

Chapter IV 
Coordination of Thought with Voice and Action . . . 57 

Chapter V 
Articulation and Pronunciation 80 

Chapter VI 
The Speech Instrument 100 

Selections 118 

Appendix 167 



m 



SUMMARY OF PRINCIPLES 

Page 

1. Understand the Relation between the Science and Art 

of Speaking 2 

2. Consider the Principles of Attention and Interest . 3 

3. Enable the Auditor to Give Attention Involuntarily . 5 

4. Make Allowance for Attention Fluctuation ... 6 
5. Find an Interest in What You Say . . ... 8 

6. Your Thought Must Appeal to Your Auditor as well 

as to Yourself 8 

7. Adapt Your Thought to Your Auditor .... 11 

8. Use Words and Phraseology Adapted to the Subject and 

Occasion 12 

9. Use Terse instead of Involved Sentences, as a Bute . 12 
10. Be Clear 13 

iv 



SUMMARY OF PRINCIPLES v 

Page 

11. Be Logical 16 

12. Use Correct Grammar 16 

13. Be Sociable 16 

14. Yary the Pitch 19 

15. Vary the Force 20 

16. Develop an Agreeable Voice Quality 20 

17. Articulate and Enunci-ate Each Sound Properly . . 21 

18. Pronounce Words Acceptably 21 

19. Action Stimulates Attention and Interest 22 

20. Develop Poise, Posture, and Gesture Interpretative of 

the Thought You Wish to Communicate 22 

21. Be Natural 22 

22. Strive for Ease 23 

23. Develop the Ability to Think in the Presence of Others 30 

24. Speak for a Dominant Purpose 40 



vi PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

Page 

25. Debate to Established Truth, Not for the Sake of Ar- 

gument 41 

26. Understand the Use of Evidence 42 

27. Appeal to Specific Mental Habits for Effective Persua- 

sive Suggestion 44 

28. Look at Your Auditor, Not at the Floor, Ceiling, or Sky 46 

29. Use Serious or Humorous Discussion and Illustration of 

Your Thought as You Think Each Contributes to Ef- 
fectiveness 46 

30. Establish Your Point 46 

31. Select the Mode of Delivery that Best Enables You to 

Accomplish Your Dominant Purpose .... 46 

32. Go Over Points of Preliminary Outline Aloud . . 52 

33. Observe the Qualities of Good Usage in Oral Style . 55 

34. Practice Speaking from Permanent Outlines . . 55 

35. Coordinate Your Thought with Voice and Action . . 57 

36. Speak Conversationally 58 



SUMMARY OF PRINCIPLES vii 

Page 

37. Make Meaning Clear by Emphasis 61 

38. Communicate Emotion by the Forms of Emphasis Plus 

Voice Quality 68 

39. Construct a Correct Auditory Image of Each Towel . 88 

40. Develop the Correct Auditory Image for Each Consonant 90 

41. Understand the Principles of Training .... 101 

42. Train for the Skillful Control of the Muscles Regulating 

the Speaking Breath 106 

43. Understand How the Chest Functions .... 107 

44. Speak with an Adequately Filled Chest .... 110 

45. Train for Control of the Three Forms of Speech Exha- 

lation Ill 

46. Train for Control of Pitch 114 

47. Train for Control of Intensity 116 



PREFACE 

There is need it seems to me for more books that can be 
used in beginning courses, introductory to public speaking, 
reading, dramatic art, etc. The book for the beginning 
course must not dwell too much on the principles of public 
speaking as such. Relatively few students, especially in 
required courses in our schools, aspire to become capable 
public speakers, and of those who cherish such aspirations 
still a smaller number ever will succeed. The demand, 
therefore, is for a book that deals with the general factors 
of everyday speaking. 

As to the need of such training in our schools, I need only 
to point to the increasing demand for speech education, oral 
English, etc., apparent in most of our States. 

Nothing is claimed for this book beyond an attempt to 
meet this need for such an introductory text. Its defects 
are many, no doubt; teachers will feel, in some instances, 
that much more should have been included, others less, of 
public speaking, reading, argumentation, etc. This is 
largely because our courses are not sufficiently standard- 
ized; the problem of one school is approached from the 
viewpoint of argumentation; in another, from reading; in 
another from dramatics and in another from vocational and 
everyday speaking. 

Credit is due to writers in this field, too numerous to 
mention, whose contributions are standard and well known 
to students of this literature; to publishers who have al- 
lowed the use of copyright material; to members of the 
staff of the Department of Public Speaking at the Univer- 
sity of Iowa, for helpful suggestions; to Professor C. E. 
Seashore, Dean of the Graduate College, for inspiration 
and advice; and to my wife, for assistance immeasurable. 

Glenn Newton Merry 
Iowa City 



THE PEINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 
INTRODUCTION 

The first question confronting the student of speech is its 
purpose; why do you speak? Why do you speak to other people? 
What purpose do you expect to satisfy? What are the ends of 
conversation? The answer may be made that we are social indi- 
viduals. We enjoy ourselves to the degree we can exchange ideas, 
feelings, emotions, experiences. No individual lives to himself 
alone. There is a pleasure, a joy, in social intercourse. We like 
to exchange mental concepts. We find a satisfaction in learning 
of the experiences thru which others have passed. Furthermore, 
there is a practical service in speech. If we desire anything, it is 
necessary to ask for it. We develop this information early in 
childhood. The child's word, "Me," is a sentence. It is a request 
for something. It is the child's way of asking for what he wants. 
The deaf and dumb person is shut up to a world of himself. He 
does not know of the experiences of others only in so far as it is 
possible for him to gain these through certain media of expression 
taught him, or that he develops for himself. But we who possess 
powers of speech and a sense of hearing, develop language; a 
language made up of words and of the media of expression, to 
communicate our wants and our experiences. We may say, then, 
that the motive for speech is 1. A desire on the part of somebody 
to hear what we have to say, — to know of some experience we have 
passed through. 2. A desire on our part to express some feeling 
or idea to another individual. These may be summarized by say- 
ing we speak to communicate thoughts and feelings to one another. 

Let this statement of the purpose of speech together with the 
following interrogations form the basis for a class discussion in 
order that a viewpoint may be established at the beginning of 
your work. 

1. To what extent is silence a form of expression? 

2. How do the kinds of speaking differ; what are the charac- 
teristics of each: 



xii PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

a. Social conversation (avocational) 

b. Vocational conversation 

c. Public address 

d. Reading aloud 
e. Impersonation 

f. Dramatic art 

3. Fundamentally, are the principles of speaking the same for 
the kinds of speaking listed in question 2 ; why f 

The next consideration confronting the student is the relation- 
ship between speech and the other forms of expression. 

4. How and when is speech less or more effective than other 
forms of expression in conveying thought? 

5. Wherein does speech differ from other forms of expression? 
The third consideration is the specific nature of speech, — 

6. Does thinking involve language? Is there any connection be- 
tween your ability to think specifically and your ability to find 
words to express your meanings? Do you find that you can ex- 
press your ideas best by writing them on paper? By gesture 
language, by speech, or by both? 

7. To what extent does action — pantomime and gesture — express 
ideas? 

8. To what extent may the modulations of the voice bring out 
and amplify the meaning of words? Says Professor Curry, — 

"Read the following lines in two ways, — first, as an abstract 
statement of fact; and secondly, suggesting as much depth of 
meaning as possible, and note the chief differences in the rendering. 

Two prisoners looked out from behind their bars; 
One saw the mud, — the other saw the stars. 

In the first rendering the words follow each other almost con- 
tinuously; in the second, there are many pauses, variations, and 
modulations of the voice. While the words remain the same, the 
impression caused by the two renderings are very different, and 
the elements which cause this difference cannot be clearly defined. 

These unprintable elements constitute delivery. They are dis- 
tinct from words and have a meaning of their own, for though all 
the modulations of the voice are directly associated with words, 
they express that which words cannot say." 



THE PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

Chapter I 

ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

The importance of interesting and effective speaking in everyday 
life is an established fact. Good conversationalists and public 
speakers are born, we say, nevertheless it is also a fact that one's 
ability to engage interestingly in conversation or public address 
can be improved by training. 

It is the desire of the author in the following pages to treat 
the whole subject of speech rather than any one phase, — such as 
formal public speaking, debate, or salesmanship, etc. The prin- 
ciples of speech are much the same from the fundamental point of 
view whether the individual is engaged in an informal conversation 
with a friend, discussing a topic of mutual interest, or giving a 
public address before an audience of ten thousand people. True, 
the activities are very different, but the difference exists more in 
the detail than in the broad application of principles. The writer 
does not wish the student to expect from these pages specific in- 
structions in public speaking, but wishes him to keep in mind 
that there are certain excellencies that should characterize all 
speech, whether before a large audience, or in company with a 
small group of individuals; and that there are certain tendencies 
that should be avoided. Relatively a small number of students as- 
pire to becoming public speakers compared with the number that wish 
to develop ability in the types of speaking met with in daily life. 
Reference will be made from time to time to public speaking as 
one form of speech activity, but also reference will be made to 
conversation, to salesmanship and other forms of communication 
that demand the development of ability. Public speaking should 
be emphasized as such and might well be a subject to follow the 
training outlined in this text. 

The writer hopes he does not misunderstand, in the main, the 
magnitude of the difficulties to be met in attempting to outline 
the principles of effective every day speaking. The reading, 



2 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

merely, of a text-book on the principles of speech will not make 
one an able speaker. Erroneous ideas to this effect are apt to 
spring from the memory of certain magazine advertisements illus- 
trating a familiar figure of an eager faced man with hand and 
finger uplifted pointing to the advertiser's headline; Influence 
Men, Become a Public Speaker. The implication of the two ideas 
may or may not bear a connection ; but more than that, there mere 
desire to become a public speaker does not lift one to that ability. 
Such is gained slowly and over no royal pathway. There are re- 
quired persistent training and patience based upon sound advice. 
Plan of the Book. Note that each principle possesses a number. 
The purpose of this arrangement is to set off each principle def- 
initely from the text matter; and, to enable the instructor to 
make specific criticisms of the student by referring him to the 
discussion in the text by that number, thus saving time in the 
recitation. The principles are in many instances axiomatic. No 
one will challenge the importance and value of such ; yet, effective 
speaking must take them into consideration and, too often, it is 
the simpler and more evident principles that speakers overlook. 
Furthermore, no attempt has been made to prevent overlapping 
of principles. Such could not be accomlished, if the writer had 
so desired. Speech is an act unified in nature. Where a factor 
of speaking could be more clearly stated by emphasizing two or 
more aspects of it, the author has not hesitated to increase the 
number of principles, regardless of the overlapping of meaning. 

1. UNDERSTAND THE RELATION BETWEEN THE SCIENCE AND 
ART OF SPEAKING. 

There is a science of speaking based upon the psychology of 
expression, upon the physiological function of the organs of voice, 
and upon the laws of physics which control the pitch, intensity and 
timbre of the voice. 

There is an art in the use of the forms of expression. Art is 
the outgrowth of training. The science of speech deals with the 
knowledge of how one speaks! the art, with the act of speaking, 
the scientist must know, the artist must do. All true art must 
be based upon scientific principles. 

The student will find in these pages only a simple and non- 
technical discussion of the principles of speaking. But he will 
find it highly profitable as well as interesting to supplement his 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 3 

study, at a convenient time, by the works of authors dealing with 
these principles from the viewpoint of the psychologist, the anato- 
mist, and the physicist. 

Definitions of "Speaker" and "Auditor". Throughout these 
chapters the terms "speaker" and "auditor" will be used. 
"Speaker" refers to the person that is talking whether in voca- 
tional or avocational speech; it should not be confused with the 
idea of a "public speaker". The speaker may be a salesman 
talking to a customer, an executive outlining his plans to his board 
of directors or to a friend, an employment manager in conference 
with a group of dissatisfied workmen, a foreman, a clerk, a teacher, 
an actor, a public reader, or a public speaker. The term is all 
inclusive, and in so far as possible all statements of principles 
refer, in general, to occasions of speech that any one of the above 
and many others might meet. 

Similarly, an "auditor" might be any one of the above mentioned 
individuals, or any other type of listener. A group of auditors 
make up an audience. 

2. CONSIDER THE PRINCIPLES OF ATTENTION AND INTEREST. 

For the most part, attention and interest may be considered as one 
and the same. However, one may think of attention as being a more 
variable element than interest. Attention may fluctuate while in- 
terest is more sustained, less fluctuant. A suggestive illustration, 
not wholly adequate, might be a body of water : attention resembles 
the waves or surface disturbances, while interest is the more stable 
undercurrent. Interest follows attention at all times. Whatever 
attracts the attention soon secures the interest. If you are an 
employee talking to your employer in his office, the passing of 
street cars and vehicles by the window may attract his attention 
from what you are saying, momentarily, but not his interest. An 
accident in the street would attract his attention and his interest 
as well. 

The interestingness of a speaker does not refer to the entertaining 
quality of his ideas because of their humorous content ; but to the 
worth-while-ness of his ideas from the auditor's standpoint. Hu- 
morous narration is but one factor in interestingness. A very seri- 
ous discussion, or a closely reasoned statement of facts may be 
interesting, but not entertaining. Interestingness is an all-inclu- 
sive requisite to speaking. 



4 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

Chapters I and II should be thought of by the student as forming 
a unit. They are separated only for the convenience of emphasis. 
The two chapters are the hub of the wheel from which radiate all 
the factors of ineresting and effective speaking. 

Attention is the all-important consideration for the speaker. 
If you are to try to convey your ideas to an individual he must 
listen to you : he must give you his attention. All kinds of speak- 
ing must command the attention of those addressed, to be effective. 
The person addressed, the auditor, must find something interesting 
(a) in what the speaker says preferably, or (b) in the qualities of 
voice the speaker uses, or (c) in the action — the gesture used by 
the speaker ; or in all three. 

It is generally taken for granted that a speaker is interested" in 
his presentation ; his problem then is to interest you. It is difficult 
to apply the mind to thoughts or consideration of objects in which 
you as an auditor are not in the least interested. If an object 
catches the eye, the attention centers upon the object for a moment. 
If you are interested in the object, the attention continues, if not, 
the attention immediately flits to something else in which you find 
interest. It is practically impossible to fix the mind's eye upon 
that in which you find no inherent interest. Suppose for instance, 
that the instructor should call upon you for a discussion of the 
subject, "Do the angels speak Hebrew, English, French or Ger- 
man ?" What would you say? Would you be able to talk before 
the class upon that subject. If not, why? What are the impedi- 
ments you would meet in trying to organize your ideas on this 
topic? The answer may be ventured that in the first place you 
have absolutely no reliable knowledge upon that subject. Again, 
you probably possess no interest in the matter, one way or another. 
What difference does it make to you or to any one else whether 
the angels speak Hebrew, English, or French? You have given 
no thought to the subject. It is without your sphere of interest; 
you have never given it your attention. If you are not interested 
in it, how can you expect to arouse an interest in the mind of 
any one else ? Too, those to whom you would speak are similarly 
disinterested as you, in all likelihood. They like yourself have 
given the subject no consideration. The subject, however, is rather 
novel and unusual. You might be able to secure an auditor's at- 
tention for the brief moment in which he first gives it consideration. 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 5 

This attention could be held only as long as you were able to in- 
terest him with ideas on the subject. 

Take another instance: suppose the instructor should call upon 
you to give some opinions to the class on the subject, "Should all 
students be required to take two hours of physical exercise daily, 
under the direction of a competent instructor?" Let the matter 
be considered seriously, such as might be the case were you address- 
ing a students' mass meeting on the subject. The topic at once 
arouses an interest in yourself, and you may feel certain that sim- 
ilar interest will exist in your auditors if the matter is up for 
adoption and the vote of the mass meeting is final. It is a debat- 
able question. You find yourself at once organizing your ideas 
on the proposition either for or against its adoption. Because of 
the inherent influence on the interest of all, both speaker and 
audience, the speaker or the audience experience little difficulty in 
centering attention on the discussion. The subject is vital. 

Thus we see that the outstanding characteristic of all speech, 
whether conversation or public address, must be that of interest- 
ingness; attention is held as long as interest exists. As soon as 
interest wanes, attention goes to something else. 

3. ENABLE THE AUDITOR TO GIVE ATTENTION INVOLUNTARILY. 

There is a relationship between the ability to understand, to 
interpret and appreciate the thoughts of the speaker and the ease 
which we experience in listening to him. 

Voluntary attention on the part of the auditor is of least value 
to the speaker. When it is necessary for you to force attention to 
a speaker, you find it difficult to get the connection between his 
ideas, to assimilate and interpret them. In so far as possible, the 
speaker should help the auditor to give attention by eliminating 
from his method of delivery 7 all mannerisms, such as odd facial 
expressions, peculiar enunciations, or gestures over-done or out 
of keeping with the thought. It is for this reason that advice is 
often given beginners to "be natural." While there are possible 
as many definitions of the term naturalness as there are individuals 
to define it, the essence of the term refers to a type of speech free 
from those forms of delivery that attract attention away from the 
thought of the speaker. We may say that speaker is most natural 
who makes it easiest for us to listen to him, avoiding all modes of 



6 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

expression that in themselves attract attention. Natural speech 
is that type which draws least attention to its method, and allows 
the auditor the greatest grasp upon the meaning intended by the 
speaker. 

If a speaker feels that it will be difficult for him to command 
attention at once, he should as soon as possible accustom his audi- 
tor to his modes of expression by the use of narrative thought, 
a story that he feels sure will at once interest the majority of his 
hearers, so as to enable them to become absorbed in the incident 
and quickly grow accustomed to any modes of delivery that handi- 
cap attention. Generally considered, the narrative is the easiest 
kind of thought composition to attend to. All of us are familiar 
with the experience of listening to a speaker who possesses an im- 
pediment in his speech. At first, it is difficult to follow him, grad- 
ually we become used to the enunciations and, as they grow less 
and less noticeable, we are able to devote more and more attention 
to the ideas ; our voluntary attention then passes over to involun- 
tary attention. 

To secure continued involuntary attention, the speaker must 
vivify his thoughts by language that carries his meanings with 
the fewest possible words, by expressive intonations of the voice, 
by gesture, and by modes of expression which his experience has 
taught him convey his ideas most readily. Brilliant lights in the 
darkness of night, loud sounds suddenly thrust upon us, extreme 
changes in temperature and objects moving in the field of vision, — 
all command our involuntary attention because they stir us from 
the thoughts that are occupying our minds at the moment. Sim- 
ilarly, the speaker must command attention by variation in his 
thoughts and forms of expression. Otherwise, they become monot- 
onous to the auditor and attention wanes. 

4. MAKE ALLOWANCE FOR ATTENTION FLUCTUATION. 

Let the instructor place the stop watch upon the table and request 
all members of the class who can faintly hear the ticking of the 
watch to raise the right hand. Then ask them to give attention to 
the sound to ascertain how the ticking comes and goes in ' ' spurts ' ' 
or fluctuations. Now, the ticking can be heard; now the sound 
disappears; now the sound comes to the ear; now, it flows out of 
consciousness. These fluctuations or waves of attention appear 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 7 

but a few seconds apart. Similarly, does the attention of the 
auditor fluctuate in listening to a speaker. The obligation rests 
upon the speaker to enable the auditor to listen to him by being 
logical in this thought, so that if the auditor does not get an idea 
the speaker has given at the moment of attention efflux, the auditor 
may be able to guess from the context what the idea of the speaker 
was at the influx of attention. There must be a connection, direct 
and continuous, between the thoughts of the speaker. He must 
arrange his ideas in points or paragraphs with a unity and con- 
tinuity to the whole. The spoken word differs from that of the 
printed page. If a reader experiences an efflux of attention on a 
sentence, it is possible for him to go back and reread the part missed. 
But usually, he cannot ask the speaker to repeat. 

The fluctuation of attention has its counterpart in rhythmical 
expression. The stress of the voice rises and falls according to the 
emphasis desired to communicate meaning. It is easy to ascertain 
when the speaker wishes to make an idea clear; the intonations of 
the voice enable us to differentiate degrees of importance among 
the ideas spoken. Similarly gestures on the emphatic ideas involve 
a rhythm enabling us to anticipate and realize the important 
thoughts. All experienced speakers follow a rhythm of some kind, 
whether it be upon the basis of thought arrangement or cadences 
of the voice and movements of the body supplementing the thought. 
There is a subtle power about the injecting into a discussion of a 
bit of poetry. The accentuated smoothness of rhythm immediately 
attracts attention. 

THOUGHT 

The Speaker's Thought, Yoke, and Gesture Affect the Auditor's 
Attention. An auditor receives his impressions of what the speaker 
wishes to communicate to him not only by the words uttered, but 
by the type of voice and gesture used by the speaker. The only 
reason for speech, of course, is to convey ideas. Therefore the 
media of expression, the voice and the action of the body are of 
prime importance. Interesting speech demands a coordination of 
thought with voice and action. 

These three factors of thought, voice and action will be considered 
separately in their relation to attention and interest. 



8 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

5. FIND INTEREST IN WHAT YOU SAY. 

It is a matter of common knowledge that one can accomplish a 
task more readily where interested, than where not. The writer re- 
calls that one of his teachers in college often repeated that when a 
task confronted him toward which he held an uncertain interest, he 
would not attempt it until he had thought about it and found 
elements in it of more than usual interest. These finally aroused a 
mild and sometimes a strong enthusiasm for its accomplishment. 
You cannot hope to interest others in what fails to interest you. 
Many speakers more or less unfamiliar with the principles of 
speaking, as such, are effective; they can trace their effectiveness 
to the fact that they are tremendously in earnest over what they 
have to say, their enthusiasm begets in others like enthusiasm ; they 
succeed as speakers. 

It is a safe rule to adopt, not to discuss subjects in which you 
find no interest, if you wish to hold the attention of other persons 
and be effective. Perfunctory conversation, salesmanship, or pub- 
lic speaking is tedious to both parties involved, speaker and listener. 

How to Find an Interest. Think the subject at hand over and 
over, until you find features that appeal to you. Then, find those 
elements which you think will appeal to your auditor. From the 
group of ideas thus organized, select those that are most fitting to 
the occasion and subject. Relate the facts of the subject to your 
own experiences and to what you think to be those of the hearer. 

6. YOUR THOUGHT MUST APPEAL TO YOUR AUDITOR AS WELL 
AS TO YOURSELF. 

The speaker must at all times keep in mind his listener while 
organizing ideas. Think to an imaginary hearer. Violation of 
this principle accounts for much of the uninterestingness of the 
talks of men and women of great influence with whom we come in 
contact. They are much interested in what they say, themselves, 
but leave us out of the consideration. They bore us with their 
own personal views and experiences with which we are often already 
familiar. Or they talk in the technical language of their own field 
of information when a moment's refleection on their part might 
bring out the fact that we would not follow them. If your ideas 
are worth taking up the time of others, they are worth the time 
you can spend upon phrasing them so that they will be understood 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 9 

by the person or persons, addressed. It is not an uncommon ex- 
perience to attend a public lecture and bear a speaker give a paper 
that does not arouse the slightest interest on the part of his 
audience. 

Elements that Appeal. We are always glad to listen to a speaker 
who has something to say worth our hearing. His special infor- 
mation may be new to us, or his ideas may be familiar to us, but 
stated in such a manner as to give us a new viewpoint. Some of 
these elements are, — 

The New. The very make-up of the human mind calls for infor- 
mation. We are constantly seeking for new facts and relationships 
between facts. If you are an unsuccessful salesman, you will find 
special interest in listening to a successful salesman speak of how 
he suceeds. 

The Novel. Novelty attracts attention and interest. Novelty is 
not apt to hold the auditor's interest long, but it plays its part in 
getting the attention of the listener. 

The Unsusual. The novel and the unusual are much alike. The 
unusual challenges our minds to an attempt to reconcile it with 
our established ways of thinking. An employer talks to us about 
our work and surprises us with his detailed information about our 
personal relations to our work. This impresses us as unusual con- 
sidering the many employees he must keep in mind. When an 
Arctic explorer returns from the North, we find interest in con- 
versation with him; what he has to tell us is in the main unusual 
and interesting. 

The Specific as Opposed to the Abstract. It is always more easy 
to think in terms of specific instances than in general terms. For 
the Secretary of the Treasury to tell us that the Government needs 
so many billions of dollars for war does not appeal to us as the 
specific statement, "A fifty dollar Liberty Bond will support a 
soldier for so many weeks." To ask a person for money to aid 
in Near East Relief because thousands of persons are starving 
does not contain the appeal which is contained in a description of 
the starving condition of one sufferer and then the suggestion that 
this sufferer's condition be multiplied hundreds of times. 

The Appropriate, The Timely, and The Important. A timely 
remark often saves a situation. A well known lecturer was speak- 
ing one evening at a chautauqua. He, as well as the audience, had 



10 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

been much annoyed by a spotted dog that persisted in returning 
to the platform and attracting attention as often as he was expelled 
from the tent. The speaker relieved the situation finally by pausing 
and looking at the spotted creature as he said, "With the language 
of Lady Macbeth I agree, 'Out, out, damned spot'." 

Introductory Remarks. Often there are occasions when a fitting 
introduction to the real purpose of one's talk will be found de- 
sirable. Writers on the Art of Salesmanship stress with great em- 
phasis, introductions. They include not only the ideas which lead 
up to the salesman's presentation, but all that makes for an agree- 
able first impression. Says Professor Brisco,* 

The first approach of a customer is of great importance to a salesperson. 
. . . . The first impression that a salesperson makes upon a customer is 
usually a lasting one, and pains should be taken to make this as favorable as 
possible. A languid face .... has driven many customers to other 
salespersons. The whole appearance from the hair to the shoes counts. . . . 
The first few words, with proper facial expression and appearance, are respon- 
sible for many sales. . . . The object of the introduction is to attract 
favorable attention. 

While dress and personal appearance exercise an influence upon 
the auditor, they are negligible at times. Occasions arise when the 
full purport of the speaker's ideas needs explanation; then, a few 
remarks right to the point will accomplish a better understanding. 
Furthermore, the exchange of a few bits of pleasantry such as 
greetings, or the reference to base-ball, golf, or other hobbies mu- 
tual between speaker and auditor will establish cordial relations 
at once. 

The purpose of an introduction, in general, is threefold, — 
First, To win favorable attention to the speaker's subject, 
Second, To secure favorable attention to the speaker, and 
Third, To state the Dominant Thought which the speaker wishes to 
make interesting and effective. Occasionally, it is well not to 
state the Dominant Thought in the Introduction, but to withhold 
it until later in the discussion for purposes of suspense as an ele- 
ment in holding attention or increasing interest. The speaker must 
apply his good judgment in the matter of the introduction as in all 
matters of speaking. 



*Brisco, Fundamentals of Salesmanship, pp. 40, 41. 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 11 

7. ADAPT YOUR THOUGHT TO YOUR AUDITOR. 

It is trite to say that people differ in mental make-up, experience, 
and interests. This, however, is an important consideration for the 
speaker. He cannot, nor need he, take into account the detailed 
differences of individuality ; but he should realize the broad differ- 
ences that separate the interests and capability of people. Roughly, 
these may be thought of as dependent upon, — 

Age 

Education 

Vocational occupation 

Social class 

Mental and emotional capacity 

One would not discuss a subject interesting to a child of six 
years of age in the same fashion he would to an adult of sixty 
years of age. With the child he would be more specific and detailed 
in the discussion. If an executive were discussing with a member 
of his working force the arrangements of his method of routing 
materials through the factory he would not use the same method 
that he would follow in discussing the subject with an outsider 
unacquainted with the general arrangement of the factory. The 
mention of "God Save the King", does not arouse within us the 
same emotion that follows the mention of "The Star Spangled 
Banner". Therefore the speaker must take into consideration the 
mental and emotional background of the auditor. Arguments, 
facts, illustrations, and incidents, must not only be understood, they 
must be within the power of appreciation of the auditor as well. 
A listener cannot be expected to find interest in that which he does 
not understand or appreciate. 

It should not be forgotten that an effective public speech depends 
upon the character and make-up of the audience. For instance, 
Patrick Henry 's speech which called the Colonies to arms was very 
effective with the audience he addressed, but it would hardly have 
been so effective if it had been delivered in English Court before 
the King. A financier might make a most effective speech to a 
group of bankers on Wall Street, but the same speech would fail 
utterly to interest a group of children in the tenement districts of 
New York City. A college president may deliver an address on 
commencement day before the graduates of a University, which will 



12 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

inspire them to ideals of noblest endeavor, but before a garment 
workers' Union meeting be hooted down. In conversation, a per- 
son may be able to speak most elegantly before the elite of social 
monarchs of New York or Boston, yet he might fail miserably 
were he to attempt to sell a stock of goods to an Ohio merchant 
or a farm implement to an Iowa farmer. 

8. USE WORDS AND PHRASEOLOGY ADAPTED TO THE SUBJECT 
AND OCCASION. 

Certain occasions call for certain phraseology and diction. This 
phraseology and diction merely reflects your mental and emotional 
attitude toward the subject or occasion. For our everyday activ- 
ities, we have a colloquial and conversational phraseology and dic- 
tion. In discussing matters of grave importance and dignity, it is 
fitting that the language should take on properties of gravity and 
of dignity. By this is not meant artificiality. One should take 
care not to become grandiloquent nor pompous. The diction of an 
eulogy differs from that which would be employed in describing 
to a friend a vacation "good time". If the language of the speaker 
is unbecoming to the subject or occasion, the attention and interest 
of the auditor will be antagonized if not lost completely in disgust. 
Good taste is especially necessary in enabling one to suit the word 
to the subject and occasion. 

9. USE TERSE INSTEAD OF INVOLVED SENTENCES, AS A RULE. 

Seldom in oral discussion is the long and involved sentence as 
effective as the shorter one going more directly to the point. More 
than the literary language of the day, spoken language abounds in 
idioms and phrases that border upon slang usage. One should 
employ the idioms as they facilitate the immediate communication 
of meaning. No other phraseology is more clear to an English- 
speaking person than such idioms as, to pluck up courage, to get 
ready, to overlook a fault, to comply with, to look out, to agree with, 
etc. As to the use of slang, a speaker's taste must govern him. 
Slang phrases that are meaningless, and which depend upon an 
inflection of the voice for suggestion of meaning as well as ephem- 
eral slang are not acceptable to those who wish to cultivate "good 
usage" of the mother tongue. 

A good criterion for the selection of sentences is suggested by 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 13 

Hill,* "Some writers prefer long to short sentences, others short 
to long ones ; but it is far more important that sentences should be 
skillfully constructed than that they should be of a certain length. 
A sentence that conforms to the English idioms, and that presents 
a single idea with perfect clearness, is practically shorter than one 
that contains fewer words, but that is heterogeneous in substance, 
and obscure or confused in form. That which lacks correctness, 
clearness, and unity is understood, if understood at all, with diffi- 
culty, and it may require a second reading; that which has clear- 
ness and unity is understood at once. A sentence conspicuous for 
force or for ease is practically shorter than one of apparently the 
same length which is feeble or clumsy in expression. Force, by 
stimulating the attention, and ease, by diminishing the strain on 
the attention, enables a reader to get at the meaning without wast- 
ing time on words that signify nothing, or on sounds that jar on 
the ear or offend the taste. If, then, a sentence possesses the five 
merits of correctness, clearness, force, ease, and unity, its length 
if not excessive matters little." 

10. BE CLEAE. 

Much that has been said in the foregoing statement of principles 
may be summed up in the term, "be clear"; that is, the speaker 
should think and express himself clearly. An auditor will find 
the greatest interest in the thought of a speaker where the min- 
imum of attention is necessary. 

You must speak in terms that will be understood by your auditor. 
No two minds think exactly alike or possess information that is 
identical. It would be an interesting revelation if you could look 
into the mind of another individual and observe the great difference 
between the conceptions of his mind and yours. The idea of 
"aeroplane" will suggest to one mind only the machine as it may 
be in the air or upon the ground. To another mind it may suggest 
the experience of flying; to still another mind, it may suggest the 
awful experience of an accident. To one mind the term "atom" 
may suggest few or no ideas. To another mind which has engaged 
in special research in this field, the term may suggest an infinite 
number of thoughts. But minds are able to come together on a 
basis of an understanding, in so far as there exists similar con- 
ceptions in each. 



*Hill, A. S., Foundations of Bhetoric, p. 285. 



14 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

1 ' Instantaneous Intelligibility, ' ' — clearness — is an essential in ef- 
fective speech. If in listening to a speaker, you find yourself 
unable to locate any clue or make any connection whatsoever with 
the object he is describing, or if he uses unnecessary and non-essen- 
tial ideas, your attention soon wanes and you lose interest in the 
exercise. It is plain then, if the speaker is to hold the attention, 
and therefore the interest of his auditors, he must be clear and in 
the shortest possible time he must convey to them his meaning. 
He must arouse thoughts and feelings in their minds similar to 
those he possesses, vividly and quickly. 

Clearness depends upon, — 

Diction 

Selection of ideas 
Arrangement of ideas, and 
Mode of speaking 

Diction. A discussion of the selection and arrangement of ideas 
will be deferred until Chapter II. Diction is one of the most im- 
portant considerations for the speaker. In the last analysis, that 
which conveys his idea to the auditor is the word. No speaker can 
feel himself safe without the possession of a reasonably large vocab- 
ulary, the words of which are ''on the tip of the tongue". When 
one is writing a letter it is often possible to stop for a few moments, 
refer to the dictionary and justify the selection of a word. Not so, 
in speaking, one must make his decision immediately. Professor 
Linn* characterizes a good vocabulary as follows, "A word is some- 
thing more than a mere combination of letters. It is a definite 
symbol of an idea. A man's words are so intimately connected 
with his thought that almost always a small vocabulary means an 
immature or feeble thinker ; and although a fluent speaker or writer 
has not necessarily anything to say worth listening to, it is true 
nevertheless that to widen one 's vocabulary is to increase the range 
of one's ideas." 

One may say that there are three characteristics to be applied 
to words, exactness, propriety, and vividness. When in doubt re- 
garding the use of a word you may question, — 

First, Is it exact? 

Second, Is it fitting? 

Third, Does it suggest my thought vividly? 



^Linn, J. W., The Essentials of English Composition, p. 86. 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 15 

Exactness refers to the accuracy with which the word is used. 
Does it give my precise meaning? Propriety refers to fittingness. 
Says Professor Linn,* "There is good form in words just as in 
manners. A man who eats with his knife or wears tan shoes with 
evening clothes attracts unfavorable notice. Accuracy and sug- 
gestiveness are more important than propriety, just as generosity 
and courage and enthusiasm are more important than good form. 
But there are few things more noticeable than bad form. So to 
educate people there are few things more noticeable and more an- 
noying than a lack of propriety in diction. Who sets good form? 
One's community, one's locality, one's nation, the whole educated 
English-speaking world, and so with words and one must know 
whether the words he uses are or are not acceptable in the polite 
society of letters. ... A word may be well known, and yet not 
acceptable; such a word as ain't. Enthuse is another of the same 
breed; so is complected. It may be too old, like avaunt, or too 
new, like foozle, or too foreign ... or too provincial. ..." Also 
a using of words of "undue splendor of diction" should be avoided. 
Triteness of phraseology is not apt to stimulate much, if any, interest 
in the mind of the auditor. Newness and freshness of word ar- 
rangement is an essential. The author happened to be in the bus- 
iness office of a concern which purchased large orders of merchan- 
dise while a salesman was presenting a selling talk on some article 
to the manager. For several minutes, the manager listened pa- 
tiently, then he interrupted the salesman with, "Say, your goods 
have been improved in the last three years tremendously, but your 
selling talk has not. Keep abreast of your goods ; that is all I can 
do for you today." Vividness is important in the selection of 
words. A vivid word stimulates the imagination. It often em- 
ploys a figure of speech. When George Ade in one of his fables 
mentions a shop girl, he gives us a vivid meaning by saying, ' ' And 
every Saturday night her employer crowded three dollars upon 
her". If you are to develop a good vocabulary, therefore, it is 
essential that you regard not only the words you hear, but the 
words you use, applying the test of accuracy, propriety, and 
vividness. Remember ,t "In the ordinary affairs of life, the fewer 
words you use to make yourself clear, the better chance you have 



*Linn, J. W., The Essentials of English Composition, p. 93. 
t/fetd., p. 89. 



16 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

of being listened to. Widen your vocabulary, therefore, not that 
you may use many or large words, but that you may use few, and 
those few exact for the occasion. ' ' 

11. BE LOGICAL. 

Ideas that enable the auditor to listen most easily to you must 
follow in a sequence; there must be a logical relationship between 
them. If he loses the drift of your thought for a moment, he can 
bring his attention back by the aid of the connection between your 
ideas. Random thinkers are most difficult to listen to. Refer to 
the selection in the back part of the text, by Artemus Ward, "A 
Lecture" (page 136). Read it aloud. Note how difficult it is to 
give adequate expression to the thought because of the lack of any 
relationship between the ideas. 

12. USE CORRECT GRAMMAR. 

It is without the province of this chapter to discuss the principles 
of rhetoric. You should be familiar with them and adapt your 
language accordingly. 

Correct grammar, thoughtful phrases, vivid diction and climax 
are all conducive to a pleasurable hearing and the absence of them 
is apt to be conducive to an unfavorable hearing. One should 
never try to butcher his grammar to win favor with an uneducated 
audience. A story is told of a lawyer who tried to ' ' come down to 
his jury" by using "was" for "were", "them" for "those", 
and other flagrant violations of grammatical rules. But the jury 
soon perceived his policy and returned a verdict against him be- 
cause as they said, among other considerations, "He thought we 
didn't know nothing." They had been accustomed to hearing 
him use proper language and the cloak did not fit him. 

13. BE SOCIABLE. 

Speech is a social function ; it demands a social attitude of mind 
toward him addressed. A conversational attitude is at all times 
the basis of interesting as well as of effective speaking. You should 
remember that the auditor is a human being, an intelligent person 
like yourself; he is either accepting or rejecting your ideas. He 
either understands or fails to understand them. He does not need 
to be yelled at, nor will he be interested in listening to you give 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 17 

a memorized talk as a little child would speak a "piece". A 
further discussion of this point will follow in Chapter IV, under 
the principle, "Speak Conversationally". 

VOICE* 

Voice May Command Attention and Interest. The human 
voice is a wonderful instrument. No instrument has ever been in- 
vented capable of equaling it in communicating the subtle thoughts 
and emotions of the mind. It is a common experience to associate 
certain qualities of the voice with the meaning of command. No 
one would think of urging a foot ball team with a quality of voice 
that did not carry the meaning of "fight! fight! fight!" such as 
is used in some of our college yells. One would not call at the 
loudest pitch of his voice to a company of soldiers to "halt!" 
without using a tone of voice indicative of command. But this is 
not what is referred to, not the quality of voice for commands, but 
rather the fact that all the qualities of the voice in all the pitches, 
intensities, etc., possess powers of commanding attention and 
interest. 

The human voice is a sound ; it should be thought of in terms of 
sound. All sounds possess certain influence upon the mind. Let 
us experiment first with sounds in order that we may establish 
the relationship between them and our attention. Sudden loud 
sounds command attention. The shrill whistle of the engine of the 
truck is it pushes along through the crowded street attracts our 
attention, especially if w T e are in its path. The whistle of the steam 
locomotive is loud that it may attract attention. The gong on the 
fire engine must be loud in order that it may be heard above the 
tumult of the street. It is a common experience in the class room 
for students to glance through the window whenever a wagon or 
an automobile is heard to pass by on the street, not because they 
are interested particularly in the conveyance, simply because the 
sound attracts the mind and attention is directed that way. This 
principle can be readily verified if the instructor will sound a small 



*To the instructor: Chapter VI may be taken up in connection with this 
discussion of the relation of voice to attention and interest. Preferably, how- 
ever, it is suggested that the instructor mention merely the main factors of 
voice production, as an introduction to the subject, reserving the more detailed 
study until later. 



18 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

gong at an unexpected moment. Immediately upon hearing the 
sound, all eyes will be turned in that direction. 

(a) Sounds varying in faintness attract attention.* Let the in- 
structor strike a series of tuning forks some more strongly than 
others, but let all sounds be relatively faint, barely audible. The 
members of the class should listen for every sound even the very 
faintest ; this will call forth unusual attention and each member of 
the class will strain to hear the slightest vibrations of all the tuning 
forks. 

(b) Melody attracts more pleasurable attention than noise. 
Place a musical record upon a phonograph in such a manner that 
it will be necessary for the needle to pass over the area of the 
record before music is produced; let the student compare the at- 
tention with which he listens to the rasping noise as the needle 
scrapes in the furrows of the record in which there is no impression 
of sound, and the attention he gives to the melody as soon as it 
appears. 

(c) Variety of tone facilitates attention. Let the instructor 
strike a series of tones upon the orchestra bells using only sufficient 
intensity to make the sound readily audible in the room. Even 
though the varying tones are continued for as much as five minutes 
the student will find it relatively easy to give attention to the sound. 
Compare this exercise with the experiment which follows. 

(d) A continuous monotone antagonizes attention. Let the in- 
structor continue to strike with about the same intensity as that 
used in the foregoing experiment with the orchestra bells, striking 
the same note; let him continue this for several minutes, or until 
the principle becomes clear. 

(e) A continuous monotone releases attention. Let the instruc- 
tor strike the same note on the orchestra bells continuously and reg- 
ularly for a period of four or five minutes. Let each member of 
the class lift his right hand as soon as he finds his mind wander 
from the tone to something else signifying that attention has waned. 
What difference is there between the attention you are able to give 
the varying tones and that given the continuous monotone? 

Similarly the voice possesses power to attract or release the at- 
tention. Let the instructor read a selection or speak a discussion 



*The several experiments should be carried on in class, adapted or amplified 
bv the instructor. 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 19 

to the class in a monotone .pitch of voice somewhat expressionless 
and let each member of the class note how as the tone continues 
there is a tendency to give attention with difficulty. Let the in- 
structor repeat the above, but this time with a guttural quality of 
tone as free from melody as possible. The student will again note 
the antagonism such a tone creates for his attention ; then let the in- 
structor give a discussion to the class or a reading in his best speak- 
ing voice using normal intensity and variety of pitch and tone 
and the student will note the ease with which he attends to this kind 
of sound as compared to the other two. 

Breathing and Resonance. These elements of voice production 
will be discussed at more length in Chapter VI. It suffices to state 
here that without proper breath control, one cannot expect to pro- 
duce satisfactory tones. All of the varying shades of force or 
intensity of voice are produced by regulating the amount of breath 
allowed to pass between the vocal cords. The quality of voice de- 
pends upon the size and shape of the resonance chambers of the 
head. These are the nasal and mouth cavities. The sounds of the 
vowels differ because the mouth cavity is shaped differently for 
each ; that is, because the vibration of the vocal cords are resonated 
differently for each vowel. 

In the light of the foregoing discussion, the following principles 
seem to be fundamental, variety of pitch and of force, an agreeable 
voice quality, and proper articulation, enunciation and pronuncia- 
tion. To be more specific, let us apply the above discussion of the 
influence of sound upon interest, to the voice. 

14. VARY THE PITCH. 

Varying the pitch of the voice facilitates greater attention and 
interest, because a wider range of demand upon the hearing of the 
auditor is allowed. If one speak with a monotone, just a few of 
the very sensitive nerve endings within the ear are stimulated ; and 
this stimulus repeated and repeated soon becomes annoying to the 
listener. Also the montone quality of voice is apt to be accom- 
panied with lifeless expression. A voice is chacterized as a mono- 
tone which possesses a small range of pitch on the music scale. 
There is no absolute monotone. On the other hand, a speaker 
should avoid undue variety of pitch. Either extreme in pitch, 
montone or undue variety, is objectionable. Undue variety smacks 



20 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

of freakishness and has no place in speech, except in certain forms 
of speech for entertainment, imitation and caricature. Training 
and taste will, when supervised by a competent teacher, establish 
a reliable standard, otherwise, more harm may be experienced than 
good. Furthermore, variety of pitch may be suited to the forms 
of emphasis to stress the relationships between words spoken. 
Emphasis will be discussed in Chapter IV. 

15. VARY THE FORCE. 

Just as variety in pitch enables the auditor to listen to the 
speaker more easily, so variety of force of voice contributes to in- 
terest. The chief contribution of variety in force is the element 
of vitality in expression. Energetic expression stimulates vigor of 
response in the mind of the auditor, calling attention to the speak- 
er's more emphatic ideas. Probably the most outstanding crit- 
icism passed upon student-speakers in the class-room is the lack 
of vitality with which they speak. 

Probably more speakers, of those who succeed, win success be- 
cause they vitalize their thoughts and make themselves interesting 
than because of any other one point of excellence. And also of 
those who fail, it is probable that more fail because they do not 
vitalize their thoughts and make themselves interesting than be- 
cause of any other one deficiency. Life begets life, vitality im- 
parts vitality. A stirring speaker moves his audience. A "live" 
salesman makes sales because enthusiasm is catching. A lifeless 
speaker never moved an auditor to action. Edmund Burke with 
all his remarkable mental endowment was known among his col- 
leagues in Parliament as the dinner bell for when he began his 
"refining" they thought of "dining". Too much emphasis con- 
not be placed upon this point. Of course, the vitality a speaker 
feels must be kept under control or mere ranting, sound and fury 
will result. 

As stated with reference to pitch, both sameness of force and 
undue extremes of force are to be avoided. All practice on the 
part of the student should be supervised by a competent instructor. 

16. DEVELOP AN AGREEABLE VOICE QUALITY. 

It is a very difficult task to define "agreeable voice quality". 
In a detailed analysis there would be a great variety of opinion, 
but in general it is not difficult to characterize voices as agreeable 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 21 

or disagreeable in the extreme. The discussion of this principle 
therefore is more negative than positive ; the author wishes to sug- 
gest that effort should be made to eliminate outstanding disagree- 
able qualities of voice. An over-nice voice is of course equally ob- 
jectionable, in so far as it attracts attention to its quality rather 
than to the idea of the speaker. A satisfactory type of speaking 
voice may be loosely denned as one which enables the auditor to con- 
centrate maximum interest upon the thought of the speaker. 

Disagreeable qualities of voice may spring from four sources. 
These are, — 

a. Improper vibration of the vocal cords, resulting in "harshness". 

b. Undue resonance through the nasal chamber, resulting in "na- 
sality". 

c. Accentuated resonance in the front part of the mouth, resulting 
in "flatness" of tone, or an extremely penetrating and piercing 
quality. 

d. Accentuated resonance in the back part of the mouth, or throat, 
causing what is sometimes termed "throatiness", or "suppressed 
voice". 

The voice may possess such unpleasant qualities that it is next 
to impossible for an auditor to be favorably impressed with a 
speaker's words. These qualities may be the result of organic 
troubles, crudities of utterance, or of affectations. Of the three 
the latter is apt to receive least sympathy. An untutored manner 
although somewhat crude is more tolerable than the crudity of 
affected voice qualities. 

17. ARTICULATE AND ENUNCIATE EACH SOUND PROPERLY. 

Articulation refers to the utterance of consonants; enunciation, 
to the vowels. Indistinctness of either causes strain upon the 
attention of the auditor, burdening him unnecessarily. If a 
speaker is logical in his thought, it is no particular handicap if the 
auditor misses a word now and then, provided the word is not 
crucial. He may follow the speaker's ideas with little difficulty. 
But otherwise, it is most annoying to try to follow an indistinct 
speaker. 

18. PRONOUNCE WORDS ACCEPTABLY. 

Gross mispronunciations call attention to the fact and check 
the listener's attention, to a degree depending upon the frequency 

3 



22 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

of mispronunciation. In the pronunciation of English, follow a 
standard generally accepted as correct. 

ACTION 

The very positions and movements of the body convey meanings 
and emotions. Lying flat on the back on a summer lawn suggests 
the emotion of relaxation more than does the position of crouching 
as if to leap. The face has rather definite expressions for such 
emotions as laughter, intense grief, surprise, anger, etc. The next 
time you see a motion-picture, close your eyes when the words de- 
scriptive of the story flash upon the screen and attempt to divine 
the emotions of the characters and the thought of the picture. Note 
what bodily positions and facial expressions are particularly poten- 
tial in giving you meaning and in stimulating within you strong 
emotions. Although the principles of action pertain more to dra- 
matic art than to every-day speaking, any survey of the principles 
of speech calls for a few notations on the part played by the move- 
ments of the body in communicating ideas. 

19. ACTION STIMULATES ATTENTION AND INTEREST. 

Even in ordinary conversation, most persons supplement their 
speech by gesture and facial expression. A minimum of practice 
before a large mirror will enable one to notice the difference between 
bodily positions that command attention and respect, and those 
which do not. Oftentimes, one's lack of poise, undignified bodily 
posture, and slouchiness become actions that speak louder than 
words and in a sense not complimentary of the speaker. There- 
fore, we may accept the following principle as fundamental: 

20. DEVELOP POISE, POSTURE, AND GESTURE INTERPRETATIVE 
OF THE THOUGHT YOU WISH TO COMMUNICATE. 

21. BE NATURAL. 

It is quite impossible to phrase a definition of naturalness that 
would be all-inclusive and generally acceptable. The following 
statement, however, is fairly adequate and at the same time syn- 
thetic of all elements of expression: Naturalness is that type of 
expression which attracts least attention to its manner. We speak 
for the purpose of conveying ideas, the idea 's the thing. 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 23 

22. STRIVE FOR EASE. 

Ease on the part of the speaker immediately puts the auditor in 
a state of ease. Nervousness on the part of the speaker arouses 
a similar uneasiness within the listener. Naturalness already has 
been defined as methods that draw no attention to themselves pri- 
marily. A natural speaker therefore is an easy speaker. We ex- 
perience no difficulty in listening to him. Of course it is possible 
after an auditor becomes fully acquainted with a speaker's bad 
habits of expression to overlook them charitably and in time to be 
able to glean the thought without much discomfiture. Facial ex- 
pression should be pleasant and agreeable ; it should not antagonize. 
Speech that is abrupt, not smooth, in which the flow of thought is 
so interrupted at times as to break the logical connection, at- 
tracts attention away from the thought and should be avoided. 
The habit of ending phrases with the sound of -a, such as and-a, 
to go-a, etc., is inimical to natural and easy speech. Probably the 
greatest foe, however, is timidity and embarrassment. No panacea 
for self-consciousness can be given. There is but one remedy, and 
that is the development of self-confidence by repeated effort. The 
more one appears before others the less timidity will be experi- 
enced. Even our popular orator, William Jennings Bryan, is said 
to suffer at times from stage fright. In fact it is possible that this 
very tension of mind, this expenditure of nervous energy is neces- 
sary to success in the presentation of ideas. 

Personality Mat Antagonize Attention. The personality 
represents the whole individual, his voice, his bodily expression, 
and the character and reputation he possesses. If an individual 
has developed a reputation for selling "blue sky" investment stocks, 
we do not care to give him our attention and interest as he elabo- 
rates his schemes for making money quickly. His reputation speaks 
louder than all the intonations of his voice and with greater mean- 
ing than any he can put into words. The student can easily recall 
the influence of the personality of some speakers regardless of their 
abilities. 



24 PKINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 



ASSIGNMENTS 4 



1. Does every art possess a science? To what extent is a knowledge of the 
science of speech essential to successful speaking? 

2. To what extent is interest a fundamental principle in speaking? 

3. What is meant by giving the auditor involuntary attention? 

For the purpose of illustrating this principle, let the instructor select five 
speakers from the class for two minute talks. Let the only instructions as to 
subject be that each speaker shall discuss a topic interesting to him. Then re- 
quest the speakers to leave the room so none of them will hear the discussion of 
another, before speaking. Let the instructor allow but a few minutes for 
preparation. The time limit of two minutes should be strictly observed. After 
the five have spoken, let the members of the class rank each on the basis of the 
ease with which they were able to listen. Let l ' ' ' be the grade given him to 
whom it was most difficult to listen, and ' ' 100 ' ' the grade given him to whom 
it was easiest. Rate the other speakers between 1 ' ' ' and ' ' 100 ' \ Before the 
members of the class hand in their markings to the instructor, let each student 
go over his rankings and ascertain whether he did not get the best understand- 
ing, the greatest number of ideas, from the speaker to whom it was most easy 
to listen; and the least number of ideas and the poorest understanding from 
the speaker to whom it was most difficult to listen. Does such a relationship 
exist? 

The following exercises in thinking before others should be among the very 
first considered by the class. The speakers should be allowed full opportunity 
to put their thoughts and feelings into speech without suggestions or criticisms 
from the instructor. These should be given later, as the student progresses, but 
in his early worlc the thought, the idea, is the thing and he should be allowed 
to give expression to his thoughts in the language and in the manner that is 
most habitual. Such an exercise offers a logical, a natural, a normal and a 
sincere starting point for speech education. 

4. Let each member of the class give a short talk on some current event. 
Let him endeavor to speak to the point in this assignment with special regard 
for concise language and accurate statement of fact. Let him select an event 
that is interesting to himself and which he feels sure will be of interest to the 
class, then let him interest the class in his discussion of it. 

5. Let each member of the class present a talk setting forth some personal 
experience that he feels will be of mutual interest. In this assignment, let 
each speaker strive (a) To make his narrative interesting to the class; (b) To 
impart to the class his own appreciation of the significance of the experience. 

6. Let some member of the class speak with special purpose of holding the 
attention of his auditors. Let the speaker select his own topic. After the talk, 



* Assignments follow the chapters. These are varied in nature and may form 
the basis of classroom work or be assigned as a part of the student 's prepara- 
tion for recitation. They are suggestive of many other exercises that the in- 
structor may organize. The writer believes in " doing" as a fundamental 
factor in speech training or education. The discussion of the chapters should 
form a basis for practice. 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 25 

let each member of the class, as well as the speaker, come to a definite concep- 
tion as to what extent the speaker succeeded. Let the exercise form the basis 
of a class discussion on, ' ' Holding the attention and interest of the auditor. ' ' 

7. Let the instructor assume a position in which the body is erect, the heels 
of the feet near together and the head well poised, chin up, etc. Then let the 
student observe the contrast between this position and one in which there is a 
general slouch given to the appearance of the body, muscles relaxed, legs un- 
evenly placed, head allowed to droop to one side and the hands rest upon some 
object near by. The general dilapidation of this posture is not conducive to 
attention when compared with the former. It is a negative position. Let sev- 
eral members of the class appear upon the platform using their own ingenuity 
to suggest to the class what they think to be a positive bodily posture, one that 
commands attention in itself in comparison with a negative posture which is 
not conducive to attention. Weak gestures made with the arm, that is, short 
movements, do not command the attention nor suggest the force of thought 
comparable to larger movements with greater range of gesture. 

8. Let a member of the class now make a talk in which he describes but 
does not name some familiar scene, building or personality. Let the members 
of the class endeavor to guess what he describes, as he speaks, holding up their 
right hands as an answer is guessed. When the hands of half the class have 
been raised to suggest to the instructor that answers have been decided upon, 
the instructor should determine whether the guesses are correct. After the cor- 
rect answer has been mentioned, let the speaker analyze in his mind what 
method of organization of ideas he followed in trying to give the auditor clear 
suggestions and at the same time not specifically to name what he was de- 
scribing. Similarly, let the members of the class analyze in their minds what 
was said by the speaker that enabled them to guess the scene, object, or per- 
sonality described. This experiment presents a splendid example of how minds 
come to a mutual understanding. When the speaker began, you had no con- 
ception of what he was to describe. A? he progressed, you began to match 
your own ideas with his; or, his ideas suggested certain thoughts to your mind; 
you compared until you found an idea in both your minds common to the object 
you thought he was describing. You followed the clue further until you felt 
sure you knew what the object was. Suppose, for instance, it was a building; 
when he mentioned the color of the building, its arrangement on the campus, 
architecture and daily use, then you concluded you recognized the object he was 
describing. 

9. A variation of the foregoing experiment should now be considered. The 
purpose of this variation is to discover how quickly the speaker can make clear 
his idea to an auditor. In the foregoing, familiarity of object to the auditor 
was essential to the experiment. In this variation, objects should be chosen that 
are not unknown to the members of the class; but, they should be rated as 

a. Unfamiliar 

b. Familiar 

c. Very familiar 

A stop-watch should be used by the instructor or the student to check up on 



26 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

the time required by each speaker to convey his idea to at least half the number 
of the class. Suppose, for instance, the speaker has in mind an aeroplane. He 
begins his description with the words, "The object I have in mind flies in the 
air. ' ' It is quite evident now that no one is sure this is an aeroplane, as birds, 
fishes, etc., fly in the air. The speaker must give a more definite clue. The 
speaker continues, "This object possesses wings; it rises to quite a height above 
the earth and flies very fast." Still, we are unable to guess what the speaker 
is trying to describe. We do not feel certain what he means by "quite a 
height," nor "very fast." These are relative terms. But suppose finally, he 
gives us this thought with the words, ' ' The object has a motor and is directed 
in the air by a human being." Immediately, we are confident of the object; 
no bird or animal possesses a motor. It is apparent now that the speaker might 
have communicated his idea to us much more quickly by leaving out the quali- 
fications that applied to the other objects and have said, "The object I have in 
mind flies in the air, propelled by a motor." One sentence then would have 
given us his meaning. The stop-watch will determine the time required by each 
speaker to convey his ideas to at least half the class. He should be ranked first 
who is able to communicate his idea most quickly in each of the above classifica- 
tions of ideas. The instructor should determine in advance to which of the 
classes the object to be described belongs. 

10. Let the instructor give notice to five speakers that they are to appear 
before the class. Allow each a period of preparation varying from five minutes 
to one, ten minutes to another, fifteen minutes to the third, twenty minutes to 
the fourth and twenty-five minutes to the fifth. Let the instructor confer with 
each student in assigning the subject to be sure one of interest has been as- 
signed on which the student possesses information, and let there be a rigid 
insistence upon a time limit of four minutes of discussion; the speakers should 
utilize all their time but at the end of the period be "rapped down." Choose 
speakers of about the same fluency of expression. Is there a relationship 
between the grades of ease with which the members of the class listened and the 
time of preparation allowed the speakers? 

The instructor, or the student from general observation, may make other 
variations of the above experiment to bring out any relationship between facility 
of expression, preparation, and involuntary attention. 

11. What are the essential characteristics of a "right" word? 

12. Note how words suggest an appeal to certain senses. 

Hearing. Bawl, call, roar, scream, etc. 
Touch. Beat, bruise, chasten, hit, pommel, flog, etc. 
Motion. Quake, totter, sway, jar, brandish, tremble, etc. 
Taste. Sour, bitter, pungent, sweet, luscious, spicy, etc. 
Smell. Scent, perfume, fragrance, odor, etc. 
Temperature. Icy, torrid, blistering, wintry, etc. 
Pain. Anguish, twinge, pang, ache, torture, throe, etc. 

13. Note in the following how one may reject until he finds the "right" 
word. 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 27 

Suppose you -wish to describe an opening that has been roughly broken 
through a brick wall. Xote how there is just one word that best depicts the 
visual mental picture you wish to convey. 

1. Opening. Too general, may be applied to almost any such picture. 

2. Cavity. Refers more to an opening externally closed. 

3. Concavity. The idea of surface, predominant. 

4. Hole. Good, but not just the idea; a hole need not necessarily pass 
through the wall. 

5. Burrow or den. Entirely inadequate. 

6. Crack, -fissure, or slit. These possess an image that is narrower than the 
opening you wish to define ; the raggedness of the edges in your picture, however, 
are present in these words. 

7. Chasm, gorge, or ravine. These are not satisfactory for they arouse 
images of the earth 's surface. 

8. Defile. This image is of an opening; but it relates to mountain passes. 

10. Bent. The image of raggedness, of being torn, is present in this word; 
but its associations are more with cloth than with walls. 

11. Orifice or perforation. Either has to do more with holes or openings 
into cavities. 

12. Bore or tunnel. The image these words stimulate is more round than 
ragged. 

13. Excavation. Thought of more in connection with holes in the earth's 
surface that later are to be filled. 

14. Notch. Possesses the image of one irregularity, but the opening you 
wish to describe has many notches. 

15. Aperture. Good, very near the idea; but the word has a current usage 
in science more than in colloquial speech. 

16. Cleft. Also good, but there is a word slightly more vivid. 

17. Gap. Refers too much to portions that were "never joined. 

18. Breach! This is the word, its image conveys your idea. 

Yet, you might have stopped with any one of the words that were "good", 
and not made your search further. But your continued search brought you the 
word conveying the most vivid mental picture of what you wished to describe. 
If the word breach is a much used word with you and you have heard it used 
before, or had used it before, in that connection, you would have thought of it 
immediately and not have made the wide selection. Familiarity with an exten- 
sive range of image-words of current usage is an essential factor in the ability 
to communicate thoughts and emotions. 

14. What are the shades of difference in the following words: how do they 
differ as to image, feeling, or idea aroused? 

Ability. Skill, cleverness, talent, tact, aptitude, capacity, power, capability, 
efficiency, sufficiency, competence, effectiveness. 

Begin. Start, open, arise, commence, initiate, inaugurate, originate, found, 
establish, etc. 

Caution. Care, wariness, heed, warning, distrust, mistrust, circumspection, 
prudence, solicitude, concern, regard, etc. 



28 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

Familiar. Hackneyed, ordinary, usual, common, trite, vulgar, intimate, 
sociable, etc. 

III. Invalid, evil, wrong, amiss, bad, harmful, baneful, baleful, ailing, unwell, 
sickly, sick, pernicious, corrupting, dire, diseased, decrepit, prostrate, conva- 
lescent, etc. 

Young. Childish, raw, green, callow, juvenile, budding, puerile, etc. 

15. Eelate a group of synonymous words to each of the following: Abandon, 
abate, abridge, account, admire, anger, amuse, ask, attention, beat, beautiful, 
behavior, ceremony, challenge, cheer, clean, clear, clever, copy, deceit, deny, 
despair, long, quick, trust, ugly, witty, and yield. 

16. Let the instructor assign for several recitations words for which related 
groups are to be found. 

17. Let each student of the class keep a "word book" for the purpose of 
developing a more careful usage of words. Let him record at least two new 
usages to his vocabulary each week during the remainder of the year. These 
words should not be "big" and uncommon words; they should be words that 
may be used in everyday speaking. In this manner, the student will get away 
from a narrow range of over-used words and will develop a more discriminating 
usage. 

18. Let the subject of ( ■' Stage-fright and Timidity" form the basis of a 
class discussion. To what extent are you embarrassed in speaking before others ? 
What seems to be your chief source of embarrassment? How do you think you 
should proceed to eliminate this? Each member of the class should be encour- 
aged to discuss the subject freely, frankly, and honestly. 

19. Let each student give a two minute talk on a subject of mutual interest 
to the class, with a minimum of preparation. 

20. Eepeat Assignment 19, above, with a talk carefully prepared. 

21. Eead for the class, conversationally, a selection assigned by the 
instructor. 



Chapter II 
EFFECTIVE SPEAKING 

Now that we have considered some of the elements which con- 
tribute to interest, let us turn our attention to the second most 
important factor in speaking, effectiveness. It is because speech 
is so commonplace a function, generally, that difficulty exists in 
correcting habits of ineffective communication of ideas, habits that 
have been under development for years and which cannot be cor- 
rected in a day. Then too, a standard of effective speech is not 
well established ; no two individuals will agree upon just the same 
elements of address as essential to effectiveness. Speech is an art, 
fundamentally, and there must always remain a certain latitude in 
the use of the forms of expression for there are no two individuals 
with minds exactly alike. There is, also, a wide range of innate 
facility with which persons express their thoughts and emotions. 
Some seem to experience little difficulty in finding adequate forms 
of expression as well as language ; others toil for the power of ready 
expression seemingly in vain. Surely some individuals inherit 
ability along this line and others, probably to the greatest extent, 
are fortunate in the environment of their childhood and youth. 
The home influence, competent instruction of the school-room in 
oral expression, and wide range of interests and of reading, all con- 
tribute toward the development of those mental faculties which 
control effective speech. But although some individuals develop 
very rapidly in ability to express ideas adequately and there are 
others who seem to progress much more slowly, there are no students 
who cannot improve by giving attention to the factors that enter into 
effective speech and by training those faculties of the mind and 
body that convey meaning from one individual to another. 

The Basis of All Effective Speech is Thought. You will no- 
tice that the statement of the preceding sentence is not that "the 
basis of speech is thought." Two small but important words are 
included, all effective speech. Much that is speech has little basis 
of thought, and sometimes we are tempted to believe has no 
basis of thought. Thoughtless speech is trifling, generally is chat- 



30 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

ter. Just as the basis of all real progress in society, whether in 
science, invention, government, or art, etc., is human thought, so 
must the basis of all expression between minds be thought. In fact, 
speech historically is the outgrowth of the desire of one person to 
convey his ideas to some other person. Speech is just an outward 
manifestation of inward desire and attitudes. 

If, then, the only excuse for speech, generally considered, is to 
convey meanings, how important becomes the ability to think and 
to think not for one's self alone, but in terms and language under- 
standable by him addressed. It is not to be wondered at that those 
who possess dominant powers of thought, and at the same time 
adequate powers of self expression, rule; while those lacking such 
mental mastery serve. 

23. DEVELOP THE ABILITY TO THINK IN THE PRESENCE OF 
OTHERS. 

The chief excuse for the public speech that is read exists in the 
fact that the speaker feels himself unable to phrase his thoughts in 
as definite and as satisfactory language amid all the possible dis- 
turbing conditions of a public assemblage as in the quiet of his 
study. Few if any great addresses or effective public speeches 
have been read to the audience. Likewise, the college student who 
spends his vacation canvassing soon learns that he cannot read his 
selling talk to a busy farmer or business man and effect a sale, nor 
can he declaim his selling talk from memory and be effective, re- 
gardless of the laurels he may have won in the college dramatic club. 
Effective speech is the outgrowth of the development of the ability 
to think before other people and to think sufficiently. For the 
public speaker, the audience will remain generally until he has 
finished his address, either out of regard for what he is saying or 
respect for itself; but, as has been said, a relatively small percent- 
age of students aspire to become good public speakers and a smaller 
percentage ever will become such. In vocational and social con- 
versation, the speaker's line of thought is more apt to be inter- 
rupted by the auditor ; the salesman must make explanations, meet 
objections, and present arguments, that could not have been fore- 
seen. The doubts in the mind of the customer must be met and 
satisfied at the moment. By far the greater amount of speaking 
whether in vocational or social conversation demands immediate 
thought before other minds and, much of the present-day public 



EFFECTIVE SPEAKING 31 

speaking also, especially of the informal type. So that it may be 
considered a fundamental principle in effective speech that one 
must train himself to think in the presence of other minds. 

(a) Timidity and stage-fright. Timidity is a personal charac- 
teristic which generally is the outgrowth of early influence or train- 
ing. From an environment lacking in social life or a home in which 
self-expression is suppressed, timid children are apt to come. 
Again, timidity may be the outgrowth of an undue self conscious- 
ness on the part of the individual because of self-depreciation, or 
because of, as is often the case — a deep egotism. The timid 
person may lack both the ability to think and speak before others, 
or he may be fully able to think in the presence of other minds 
and yet lack the power to express his ideas adequately. The timid 
person must avail himself of opportunties to associate and converse 
with other people. Milder forms of timidity will soon disappear 
with such activity. The great need for the average timid person 
is a developing sense of independence and right to an opinion 
together with familiarity with the sound of his own voice and use of 
other media of expression. Especially in speech does repeated ef- 
fort bring confidence. Let the timid individual frankly acknowl- 
edge that he is timid ; then, when speaking, let him seek to become 
so engrossed in the thought and social pleasure of the occasion that 
he becomes oblivious of self. 

Stage-fright is a sort of fear that is apt to attack not only those 
who are timid, but those who ordinarily experience little or no 
timidity in speaking before others. The term is used in connection 
with the public appearance of theatrical people and is especially 
common to the actor or actress appearing for the first few times 
before the footlights. But the term also is used to apply to that 
fear which suddenly seizes a speaker as he appears before a group 
of auditors, especially a large audience. It is probably an in- 
herited trait similar to that experienced by some animals when in 
the presence of their captors or of some dreaded foe. There is 
little other meaning which suggests an explanation of stage-fright. 
The speaker who is familiar with appearances before others is not 
immune; in fact, there are records of experienced speakers failing 
utterly and having to withdraw from the audience simply because 
of this fear. Yet, there is no legitimate cause for such fear. 
When attacked by this unreasoning fear, the speaker should exert 



32 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

himself to retain his mental poise and be calm. The sensation is 
seldom more than momentary and passes with the speaker's gaining 
full control of his thought and deliberation. 

The most potent weapon against both timidity and stage-fright 
is clear thinking. Just as soon as one allows his ideas to become 
confused, he renders himself susceptible to attack. When possible, 
ideas should be thought out in detail before a talk that is to be 
given; no wise speaker, subject to timidity or stage fright, will 
wait until his time to speak before he attempts to organize his 
thoughts. 

Effective Speech Demands a Sensitive Appreciation of 
Meaning. It is not possible to be effective if the significance of 
what one is uttering is not understood. The little child giving his 
"piece", "Twinkle, twinkle, little star!" etc., has no appreciation 
of the meaning of the words he utters. Both selections that are 
read and memorized talks that are simply repeated often lack effect- 
iveness because the reader or speaker does not appreciate the 
significance of the meaning of the words he speaks. An apprecia- 
tion of meaning is a factor of prime importance. 

The ability to appreciate meaning depends upon the mental back- 
ground of information and experience possessed by the speaker. 
"Out of the fullness of the heart, the mouth speaketh." Back- 
ground may be thought of as the sum total of information and ex- 
perience possessed upon any given subject. We are always ready to 
listen to a person speak along the lines of our interests, if he knows 
what he is talking about. Even for short class talks, the student 
will find that he is more effective when discussing something fa- 
miliar than when he attempts an entirely new subject. The 
importance of the relation between a talk based upon experience 
may be illustrated by the floating iceberg. That part of the iceberg 
which appears above the surface of the water is relatively small; 
by far the larger part is not visible : the larger portion, however, 
is the support of that which is visible. The wise speaker makes 
no attempt to tell all he knows ; he selects from the bulk of his in- 
formation and experience, the larger the bulk the better, an idea 
here and an idea there, but his thoughts carry weight because of 
the experience upon which they are based. One develops back- 
ground by a. Thoughtful Observation, b. Conversation, c. Read- 
ing, d. Reflection. 



EFFECTIVE SPEAKING 33 

The chief characteristic of appreciation when applied to meaning 
is the emotional response the meaning awakens within us. We may 
think the fact of Niagara Falls. We may speak of the Falls as a 
certain type of mind often speaks and say, " Pretty. " Or, we 
may follow the expression of another type and say, ' ' Impressive ' '. 
Still, we may view the wonder of nature and say with a noted 
scholar, "Deity!" Appreciation is the feeling we possess toward 
ideas. The thought of war means more to the individual who has 
been in the thick of it than to one without the experience and whose 
only background for war is the information found in publications. 
It is not a legitimate criticism, often, to say of a speaker that he 
does not appreciate what he says? 

Effective Speake^g Demands Vivid Thinking. The ability to 
communicate thoughts and feelings to another mind effectively 
depends upon the speaker's definiteness and vividness of ideas. 
Can you recall a conversation with some individual whose mind 
seemed confused as he spoke. His sentences carried little meaning 
to you; in other words, you did not know ivhat he was talking 
about. On the other hand recall the words of a friend who brought 
some great news to you, news in which you both were interested. 
Remember how each sentence stirred you as he spoke and of how 
each word seemed almost as vivid with a mental picture to you as 
to him ; and of how impressive were not only the features of his face 
and the gestures he used, but the tones and inflections of his voice 



There is a very close relationship between the images of the mind 
and the words we select in expressing these mental pictures to 
another individual. The question is often discussed as to whether 
we think in terms of wordless images and thoughts. Professor 
Titchner* remarks, 

There is a long standing controversy ... on the question whether 
thought is possible without language. And it hinges, like many other contro- 
versies, upon the ambiguity of the question itself. If we take the human adult, 
as he is, and appeal to his introspection, the answer comes plain and definite: 
thought and reasoning, define them as stringently as we may, can go on in 
terms of internal speech, in terms of conscious attitudes, . . . and iu 
terms of images. The attitude is as symbolic as the word, and the image may 
be as symbolic as the attitude; all that thought requires is a system of mental 
symbols. But this very statement suggests another reading of the question in 



^Titchner, E. B. A Text-hook of Psychology, pp. 522-3. 



34 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

discussion. Thought requires symbols; language is a system of symbols; and 
we have no reason to suppose that in the history of mind, it supervened upon 
or took the place of any previous system. Thought and language, in other 
words, appear to have grown up side by side; each implies the other; and in 
this sense it is true to say that there is no thought without words; reasoning 
and language are two aspects of the same phase of mental development. The 
old conundrum: Why don't animals talk? Because they have nothing to say 
— contains a sound psychology; if the animals thought, they would talk; since 
they do not talk, they do not either think. 

In the foregoing paragraph Professor Titchner was quoted to 
cite the fact that we possess a mental language, an "internal 
speech", which is quite independent, in a way, of the language 
that we speak socially. All of us are familiar with the rush of 
thought in the mind which is wordless; we seek to find just the 
words expressive of the thought. We have a specific mental picture 
we wish to characterize exactly for the mind of another ; it may be 
the image of a sound, a high pitch, but, although we have the 
image of the sound in mind, it may be several moments before we 
are able to call to mind the word, "shrill", with which we wish to 
describe it. It is for this reason that the study of, and discrimina- 
tion among, words is a pleasure. It opens up new satisfactions, 
for we are able to communicate shades of meaning impossible be- 
fore. Words are symbols of meanings common to the people who 
speak our language. It is a joyous exercise to find exact counter- 
parts in the words of language for the mental pictures we ex- 
perience. 

Thought without the use of specific words is possible and normal. 
But much of our thinking is in terms of specific words and in 
terms of the language we speak. Words enable us to define and 
limit, to characterize exactly, our images and ideas. Note how 
they characterize a mental picture. Close your eyes and imagine 
a horse. How is the animal's appearance affected if you are told 
"He is a plug?" How, if you are told "He is a prancing steed?" 
Our language is rich in vivid words and phrases expressive of our 
images, thoughts, and emotions; and while these expressive words 
facilitate our thinking to a great degree, they become an absolute 
necessity in social, commercial, or professional relationships when 
we undertake to change the thought or course of action of another 
person. 

Kinds of Mental Images: — Ordinarily we think of our mental 



EFFECTIVE SPEAKING 35 

images as being pictures "seen in the mind's eye". We call to 
mind the image of how the house in which we live looks, and we 
"see" it. But the visual image is only one of several types of 
images. Imagine, if you can, a street scene in your town on a 
very hot summer day. You see the few people who must walk in 
the sun panting and wiping their faces with their handkerchiefs. 
The people are walking slowly, too; not hurrying about. But can 
you not experience more than a visual sensation? Cannot you 
also feel the heat of the day ? Do you not hear the voice of some 
conversational philosopher, calling attention to what you wish to 
think least about, "Pretty warm day, isn't it?" You can probably 
taste the satisfaction a dish of ice cream brings as you feel the 
perspiration on your brow. 

These images are definite and to a degree are vivid. They are 
more than visual; they may correspond to all the senses, and may 
have as sources, sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch, temperature, 
pain, muscle sensation, etc. And furthermore, individuals vary 
in their ability to recall the various mental images; some see ob- 
jects more readily than they hear sounds ; others may be relatively 
unable to visualize while images of temperature or of pain will 
come with extreme vividness. Because of the fact of this variation 
among persons it is necessary for the student of oral expression 
to study all forms of mental imagery. He personally may visualize 
with great ease, but if in conversation with an individual who 
possesses poor powers of visualization, he will be unable to commu- 
nicate his own thought if its appeal is chiefly to visual imagery. 
Imagine a salesman trying to sell a deaf man a player-piano with 
any reasonable expectation that the instrument would bring the 
purchaser personal satisfaction. 

Influence of Imagery on Our Thoughts. One kind of imagery 
will appeal to one type of mind; another kind to another type. 
Some people are satisfied if they believe they look to be in style. 
Some cannot bear to listen to a detailed description of misery or 
accidents that have resulted in painful injury. Wordsworth was 
a keen observer of nature and enjoyed its moods ; recalling the im- 
ages of a stroll near the lake, he found comfort and solace in their 
vividness. 

"For oft when on my couch I lie 
In vacant or in pensive mood 



36 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

They flash upon that inward eye 
Which is the bliss of solitude 
And then my heart with pleasure fills, 
And dances with the daffodils." 

'Creative Imagination: While the term imagination may be used 
in connection with the recall of any sense image, it is more pop- 
ularly used with reference to visual imagery. We speak of a person 
as being imaginative if he sees mental pictures. Yet, we could not 
deny that a blind person possesses imagination, or that Helen 
Keller, who can neither see nor hear has imagination. It is likely, 
however, that most individuals form some kind of visual image 
when imagining any of the other sensations. If we speak of the 
image of broiling steak, probably the steak is seen and the odor of 
the frying meat accompanies the visual image. 

Imagination may be creative. While it is impossible for a mind 
to imagine anything that has not at some time been perceived 
through the senses, it is possible to make new images that have not 
been seen. The term "heaven" is a good illustration of our at- 
tempt to create an image of a place not seen. We attribute to it 
all the excellencies our natures crave or in which our natures will 
find satisfaction. It is spoken of as being paved with gold, the 
gates are embellished with precious jewels, etc., all forming a visual 
appeal of striking beauty and splendor. The danger to be guarded 
against in imagination is the tendency to get too far away from 
the facts, from the truth. Children's untruths are often normal 
for they see the creations of the imagination vividly and they do 
not distinguish between the real and the unreal. The mind should 
be schooled as Professor Titchner says, "To distinguish between 
fact and fancy . . . must be taught the distinction that what be- 
gins as a normal feature of mental constitution is not to end as a 
habit of exaggeration and disregard of truth. Rightly schooled, 
imagination is of the greatest service in after life." Some public 
speakers, salesmen, and others as well, exaggerate images with re- 
peated discription and sometimes these exaggerations become so 
real to the speaker that they are told for fact. 

Developing Mental Imagery. The faculty of summoning images 
is strong in childhood, but with years it may be weakened by dis- 
use until it almost ceases to function, especially among some of the 
sensations. The student of oral expression should allow full play 



EFFECTIVE SPEAKING 37 

to his tendency to image ; the only check upon it should be the limits 
of fact. Exercises aid in the development of habits of mental im- 
agery such as thinking how each article of food will taste as you 
order from a menu card or approach the dinner table; recalling 
the refreshing exhilaration of a brisk walk into the country, re- 
membering the physical pain that accompanies improper habits of 
living ; reading literature with special effort to enter into the appre- 
ciation of the emotions as suggested by the mental imagery of the 
writer ; listening to good speakers, with susceptible attitude toward 
images; and, using mental imagery in your own conversation to 
aid in conveying your thoughts and emotions to other people. 

Images and Ideas. It has already become apparent to the 
reader by this time, no doubt, that there is a relationship between 
the mental picture and other ideas. The image contained in the 
word, barrage, gives an idea and you cannot resist the tendency to 
summon other images immediately around it, especially if you hap- 
pened to be one of those who have seen or been through one. 
You cluster these images and ideas and you have an association 
which leads you to a larger group of ideas; not only the barrage, 
but the men as they stagger in it; you see the wounded, you won- 
der how they endure the pain; you think some will recover from 
their wounds but be maimed for life; the time element that must 
be observed in following the barrage comes to you and the mandate 
to follow it at a certain pace; you realize that there is a plan to 
it all, that the commander who has issued the order to follow has 
some objective to gain : all these and many more thoughts come to 
you almost instantaneously with the image summoned by the men- 
tion of the word barrage. Ideas, then, are inseparately connected 
with images and the whole forms the basis for thought. As one 
thinks these groups there is no consciousness of nouns, adjectives, 
verbs, nor sentence arrangements. They come pell-mell upon you 
demanding a place in your consciousness; and it is not until you 
undertake to communicate your thoughts to another individual 
that you are aware of the necessity of language. Nor should you 
be aware of language any more than you are of the processes of 
thought. Habits of expression should be developed along with 
habits of thought, for the instant you begin to grow conscious of 
"how" you are speaking, that idea becomes the one uppermost in 
your mind and the thoughts you really wish to convey are lost, 
they fade out of mind. 
4 




38 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

Imagery and Words: The foregoing study has made clear the 
very close relationship between images and words. The word is 
necessary to describe the picture and the word must be in keeping 
with the pictorial setting. For instance the word waving suggests 
a certain type of image; in your mind an object is associated at 
once as being in the state of waving : now consider the word shiv- 
ering, and the image it arouses : would it be logical to think of a 
person shivering from the cold and to describe him as waving 
from the cold? 

Words are associated with each other in families or groups dif- 
fering slightly one from the other according to shades of meaning 
due to current usage, images aroused, etc. The student of speech 
practicing careful discrimination can soon enlarge his powers of 
accurate expression so that he is able to speak the idea he really 
wishes to without ambiguity and generalities. Considerate selec- 
tion of the best oral word or phrase is a habit worthy of cultivation ; 
it brings its reward in accurate thinking. 

Language Calls for Organization of Ideas. In speech, we think 
so much more rapidly than we talk that it is necessary to select only 
the few most important ideas for utterance; and then, too, we do 
not ' ' tell all we know ' ', like the child, but express only a sufficient 
number of ideas to make our meaning clear. Thus a process of 
selection and arrangement enters into language. Furthermore, we 
are bound by the conventions of language, the formal structure 
of grammar, etc., when we converse. These are rules to which we 
must conform, rules that have been built up in the development of 
the language; intelligibility depends upon our following them. 
But again it should be repeated, speech must progress with max- 
imum attention centered on ideas and with minimum attention on 
the mode of arrangement into language. 

. ORGANIZING IDEAS 

Effective speaking demands purposive thinking. In the old time 
warfare, soldiers pointed their muskets or their cannon in the di- 
rection of the enemy and fired, there was no attempt to aim, and 
the shots scattered widely. In modern warfare, range is definitely 
obtained. The soldier aims his rifle specifically at an object, or the 
barrage is dropped upon a definite objective. Similarly with 
speech. Much that is spoken is not effective, and yet it might be 



EFFECTIVE SPEAKING 39 

made quite effective, were there a definite objective toward which 
the speaker directed his ideas. A definite purpose in the mind of 
the speaker enables him to focus his thought. 

Brander Mathews in his book Notes on Speech-Making, speaks 
of there being two types of occasion demanding speech; one when 
the speaker has something to say, and the other when the speaker 
must say something. In the two occasions, the speaker who has 
something to say is much more apt to be effective with his auditors, 
but something to say, is not completely adequate. Says Professor 
Phillips,* in a book of which this chapter happens to be the title : 

The common error in regard to speech is the assumption that all that is 
necessary is to have "something to say". Utterly false! Unless that "some- 
thing to say" is said in accordance with the laws of human mind which govern 
conviction, it might as well be spoken to the wind. Let anyone who thinks that 
"something to say" is the only requisite to effectiveness in speaking ask him- 
self how much of all he has heard has left a permanent impression upon his 
mind, and he will at once realize how necessary is a knowledge of the art of 
successful speaking. Or let him study the story of human progress. There he 
will see how slow is truth to find acceptance. Let him think how many human 
lives were sacrificed before truth could be got into the mind, that devils did 
not have habitations; let him think of the argument and eloquence needed be- 
fore men could be convinced that slavery was wrong ; and he must surely admit 
that the importance of studying how best to form an opinion, and how best to 
convey it, is indeed great. The modern speaker, then, must rid himself of the 
notion that "something to say" is sufficient; that the impulsive utterance of 
an idea will of itself secure belief or action. He must realize that besides 
"something to say" he must learn how best to convey it . . . the truly 
effective speakers never have enthroned blind impulse as their God. The speak- 
er, if he would achieve his purpose and achieve it with the least effort, and that 
is art, he must realize that every step in the development of speech demands 
exercise of the judgment upon . . . objective. It concerns the listener, 
it is the question of, ■ ' How can I get my listener to see my thought, to see my 
thought as clearly as I see it, to feel it as vividly as I feel it, to believe it as 
deeply as I believe it, to act upon it as sincerely as I act upon it?" 

Aristotle thought of the purposes of speech as being three, namely ; 
to move, to convince, to praise or blame. Quintilian, on the other 
hand, thought of the ends of speech as, to inform, to move, to 
please. Phillips accepts the latter, but prefers to make two addi- 
tions: Clearness, and Impressiveness. But the writer is inclined 
to think that clearness and impressiveness are qualities, which 

*Phillips, A. E. Effective Speaking, pp. 13, 14. 



40 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

should apply to all speech; no speech should not be clear, and all 
speech should be impressive according to degrees. The writer is 
inclined to make the following classification as one best meeting 
the demands of every day speaking, at the present time: 

1. To inform 

2. To prove 

3. To persuade 

24. SPEAK FOR A DOMINANT PURPOSE. 

Effective speaking demands the selection of a dominant purpose. 
One may speak for the purpose of communicating information 
solely, or he may desire to persuade an individual to a certain 
course of action; but before it is possible to persuade him it may 
be necessary to communicate certain information, and in this case, 
two purposes one subsidiary to the other are selected in order 
that the general effect may be one of persuasion. Moreover, a 
speaker may have in mind, conveying information, but he may 
also prove as well. Parts of any talk may utilize any one of the 
three dominant purposes, but the general effect should be definitely 
either to convey information, or to prove, or persuade. 

1. To Inform. This dominant purpose is used when the speaker 
desires to give directions, to explain a process, or to discuss the 
meaning of certain facts and their relationship one to the other. 
It is the dominant purpose of the teacher in the class-room, of the 
business man explaining before his board of directors the condi- 
tions of the business which demand attention. It is the dominant 
purpose of the scientist, as he explains some theory, or inventor 
as he tries to make clear the value of the invention which he wishes 
to place upon the market. The literary form which corresponds 
to this dominant purpose is exposition and sometimes narration. 
Exposition forms a large part of the foundation in argumentation 
for conviction and persuasion. Many misunderstandings and dis- 
putes arise from lack of information. An exposition of the facts 
in the case, enabling the auditor to understand, will often end an 
argument. 

2. To Prove. This Dominant Purpose serves to establish the 
truth of a proposition; it is concerned only with truth and error. 
It does not refer to the giving of information, only in so far as 
information is essential to a proper interpretation of argument. 



EFFECTIVE SPEAKING 41 

It deals with reasons, with the array of evidence. It calls for a 
careful use of one's powers of logical thought and ability to detect 
fallacies. It deals with facts rather than motives of human con- 
duct. It presupposes that a question of doubt exists and it either 
affirms or denies or shows the desirability of middle ground. The 
use of this Dominant Purpose is possible only where an idea is 
subject to challenge, where some point is debatable, where evidence 
can be offered establishing the complete truth or tending to estab- 
lish truth. 

Of the three Dominant Purposes, to prove is used least in or- 
dinary conversation and business relationships. We do not care to 
reason out a truth, sufficiently, or to listen to some one present a 
conclusive argument. Time is too short, we say ; we prefer to take 
some one's word for the truth or to try out the proposition and 
judge afterwards. Few advertisements, if any, ever present a 
conclusive argument for their claim; probably we should not read 
them if they did. Nevertheless, this Dominant Purpose plays a 
most important part in some instances of social relationship and a 
study of its principles of effectiveness is necessary. Someone must 
prove; someone must establish the validity or invalidity of what 
people generally accept. Most of us act on what we think to be 
the truth regarding facts; we change our opinions only as we get 
new evidence, either from our own observations or from the infor- 
mation furnished by others. This Dominant Purpose is used in 
such cases as an executive speaking to prove to his board of direc- 
tors that a new plant should be built to supplement the old factory, 
an attorney arguing a point before a judge, a salesmanager show- 
ing a group of his salesmen in what features their product excels 
that of the competitor. Its use demands some understanding of 
the nature and service of evidence, and as well, a note of warning 
against a type of argument that degenerates into mere conten- 
tiousness. 

25. DEBATE TO ESTABLISH TRUTH, NOT FOR THE SAKE OF 
ARGUMENT. 

Some individuals like to argue just for the sake of argument. 
They have few convictions and are willing to discuss either side of 
a question, apparently lacking the power of weighing evidence. 
One should guard against such practice and refuse to indulge in it ; 



42 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

such an indulgence will in the long run diminish one's keenness 
of judgment as to the relative merits of evidence. Be open minded, 
at all times; out seek truth. 

26. UNDERSTAND THE USE OF EVIDENCE. 

The use of evidence calls for clear and accurate thinking; and, 
especially concrete thinking, — thinking that is to the point. Gen- 
eralities have no place in the quest for the truth of fact. Thorough 
analysis and exact definition of the point under debate are essen- 
tial. You must determine just where you agree and just where 
you differ from your auditor; you must find what are usually 
termed the issues of the question under discussion. 

In stating this principle urging an understanding of the use of 
evidence, the author does not mean to refer to an exhaustive 
study and application of the rules of evidence. Such belongs to a 
special treatise and to a course of study involving the fundamentals 
of argumentation alone. One should understand the use of evi- 
dence to the degree, at least, that he will be able to and will 
distinguish between mere assertion of truth without supporting 
facts, and argument which offers evidence and facts that provide 
the basis for a claim of truth. 

O'Neill* lists the the kinds of evidence as 

a. Direct or circumstantial 

b. Real or personal 

c. Original or hearsay 

d. Negative evidence 

e. Expert evidence, evidence based 

upon the statement of an authority. 

As to evidence and proof, O'Neill t further states 

When men in debate or discussion make statements that are not at once 
accepted, or which they fear will not be accepted, it is common to present 
evidence to prove that they are right. Certain facts are presented as evidence 
from which it may be inferred that the statements made are true. By evidence, 
then, is meant any matter of fact which may be used in generating proof. 
Seasoning or inference (or argument in one sense of the word) means a 
process of thought by which we evolve or substantiate conclusions not self- 
evident in the facts with which we deal. 

It is important that in dealing with evidence and argument we distinguish 



*0'Neill, J. M. A Manual of Debate and Oral Discussion, p. 59. 
flbid., p. 60. 



EFFECTIVE SPEAKING 43 

between the evidence, t. e., the matter of fact from which we reason, and the 
reasoning in which we indulge. Reasoning about facts is not evidence. The 
term "proof" is used to cover the whole process of using evidence and argu- 
ment for the purpose of establishing conclusions; so proof may be said to con- 
sist of evidence and argument. The word "proof" is sometimes used to mean 
the result or effect of argument, instead of simply the word covering the whole 
process. Using proof in this sense we might say that evidence is the raw 
material, argument or reasoning or inference is the process or method, and 
proof is the finished product. 

3. To Persuade. This Dominant Purpose differs from the 
others in that it seeks to influence human action, solely. Very few 
of us act on the basis of judgment arrived at by a process of de- 
tailed, careful and exhaustive reasoning. We act in such and such 
a manner just because so and so acts that way; we wear clothing 
of the latest fashion, not because it is particularly becoming to us, 
but because every one else wears clothing of a similar kind. As 
students, we go to more parties a week, probably, that we should, 
yet, "everybody does" is sufficient reason to justify us. Or, we 
may buy a new pair of shoes, not because we need them, but "just 
because I liked them". One or two factors assume great argumen- 
tative value and we act upon such with little thought of other 
factors that might have entered in. Most human action, then, is 
not the result of careful review of proof, but, of suggestion which 
influences the mind in a manner similar to proof. We act some- 
times on the basis of an argumentative suggestion in a fashion that 
we think will be justified by careful thought, but again we act on 
impulse with almost no reflection. Let this distinction be clearly 
observed, however, that action in response to suggestion is not blind 
impulsiveness, unreasoning and insane, even though later experi- 
ence or reflection fails to justify the act. At the moment of the 
action, the mind justified it. The appeal was to a conviction or 
fundamental desire which had been accepted by the mind at some 
earlier period as legitimate. The appeal of proof is to a judgment 
that requires the consideration of all the elements involved, including 
elements that are more impersonal ; the appeal of persuasion is to 
a judgment that requires only one, or at most only a few elements, 
and those must be related to your own self, to your own beliefs or 
desires or cravings, to your own course of action in the matter. 
For this reason, it is often said that persuasion appeals to the 
emotions, while proof appeals to the reason. Reason may be im- 



44 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

personal, the emotions cannot be. The appeals possible through 
persuasion, therefore, are to established habits or states of mind. 
An exhaustive classification of these states or habits is not neces- 
sary, even if possible. Every individual is well enough acquainted 
with those within him that justify action; and they are not the 
same for all individuals. In the main the appeals are to one's 
sense of honor, love of fair-play, regard for the weak, admiration 
for the strong, love of the beautiful, abhorrence for the vile, filial 
devotion and affection, desire for personal ownership, to vanity, 
reputation, etc. You will find it interesting and profitable to lay 
aside this discussion for a few minutes and list some of the appeals 
you are subject to, especially those that have influenced your acts 
within the last twenty-four hours. Some people yield to one ap- 
peal more than to others, but largely people yield to about the 
same larger appeals, such as honor, personal pride, sense of justice, 
desire for personal ownership, etc. 

27. APPEAL TO SPECIFIC MENTAL HABITS FOR EFFECTIVE PER- 
SUASIVE SUGGESTION. 

To secure action, analyze carefully what appeals are possible, 
then select that one which you feel will most influence your auditor. 
Few, rather than many, appeals are most effective ; and they should 
be to a specific emotion or mental trait. If you are urging fellow 
students to attend the basket-ball game or the "big football game 
of the season ' ', there is no stronger appeal, ordinarily, to the right- 
minded student than "Support the team". The appeal is to the 
auditor 's sense of justice, of honor, and of reputation, all of which 
are much the same. 

Professor Scott* in discussing the nature of suggestion, states, 
"The working of suggestion is dependent upon the impulsive, 
dynamic nature of ideas . . . every idea of an action will result 
in that action unless hindered by an impeding idea or physical 
impediment. . . . Every idea, concept or conclusion which enters 
the mind is held as true unless hindered by some contradictory 
idea. . . . Suggestion includes no comparison or criticism." He 
further states when to use suggestions in influencing men. Sug- 
gestion is preferable to proof or argument, 

a. When inadequate time is given for arguments 



*Scott, W. D. Influencing Men in Business, pp. 46, 47 



EFFECTIVE SPEAKING 45 

b. In securing action following proof 

c. As a supplementary method of convincing 

d. In dealing with the general public 

e. For securing immediate action 

The following are well known suggestions to action, 

"Women and children first." 

"Is that fair?" 

"Would you treat a friend that way?" 

' ' Buy chains and avoid sad consequences of automobile accident. ' ' 

' ' You ought to attend church regularly. ' ' 

"Be a manager, take our correspondence course." 

' ' Eat, live and be merry, for tomorrow we die. ' ' 

One can easily add to this list from his own experience, indefi- 
nitely. 

Qualities in the Speaker that Contribute toward Effective Per- 
suasion. What and who a speaker is carries considerable weight 
in persuasion; a child will mind a parent readily, but refuse to be 
commanded by a playmate of the same age. If a friend is needy 
financially, we will sacrifice more readily to help him than we 
would feel justified in sacrificing to help a stranger about whose 
needs we knew little. The speaker, himself, is an important con- 
sideration in effective persuasion. Foster,* in discussing the 
sources of persuasion emphasizes the attributes of the man who 
seeks to persuade others to action; he suggests as being most 
necessary, 

Sincerity 
Earnestness 
Simplicity 
Fairness 
Self-control 
Sense of humor 
Sympathy 
Openness of mind 
Personal magnetism 

These qualities need not be discussed, we all know their impor- 
tance and that impressiveness and command of personality are not 
possible where they do not exist. Strength of purpose and char- 
acter are reflected in the poise of the body, appearance of the facial 



*Foster, W. T. Argumentation and Debating, pp. 263-9. 



■ 



46 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

features and look of the eye. A frank look from the eye of the 
speaker stimulates confidence ; a shifting glance leads us to believe 
that his confidence in what he says lacks stability. So important 
is this factor that it may be listed among the principles of effective 
speaking, — 

28. LOOK AT YOUR AUDITOR, NOT AT THE FLOOR, CEILING OR 
SKY. 

29. USE SERIOUS OR HUMOROUS DISCUSSION AND ILLUSTRATION 
OF YOUR THOUGHT AS YOU THINK EACH CONTRIBUTES TO 
EFFECTIVENESS. 

Some writers on the principles of speaking list as a separate 
Dominant Purpose speech that has as its end entertainment. This 
need not be ; an argument may be entertaining and quite humorous, 
it may be serious. Similarly an informational talk need not be 
serious, wholly. Sometimes a humorous suggestion makes one of 
the very best persuasive ideas. The subject, occasion and the 
auditor govern the usage. When dealing with issues of great mo- 
ment or feeling of deep sentiment, humor is likely to be quite out 
of place. On the other hand, in every day activity, humor is the 
" safety valve". 

30. ESTABLISH YOUR POINT. 

Writers use paragraphs and rhetorical periods to set forth com- 
plete ideas; speakers use "points". Train to stay by the state- 
ment of an idea until your point is clearly established. All that 
has preceded in the discussion of the chapter has been to enable 
one to "make his point". 

31. SELECT THE MODE OF DELIVERY THAT BEST ENABLES YOU 
TO ACCOMPLISH YOUR DOMINANT PURPOSE. 

Considering the auditor as a listening mind accepting or reject- 
ing your thought, there are five modes of delivery more or less 
distinct from one another, any one of which may be used in com- 
municating ideas. They are: 

1. Impromptu. This is the type of delivery which is used 
when the speaker has had no opportunity to organize and arrange 
his thoughts for presentation, before being called upon to express 
them. He must organize his thoughts as he speaks before the 



EFFECTIVE SPEAKING 47 

auditor. In this type of delivery there is apt to be more or less 
disorganization of language, as well as of thought. It has its oc- 
casion in regular conversation ; its advantage is that of spontaneity 
of thought ; its disadvantage is that which follows lack of reflection 
and definite arrangement of ideas. 

2. Extempore. This type of delivery differs only from the 
Impromptu in that the speaker has had time to arrange his ideas 
in more or less definite form, but has been unable to select the 
words that he wishes to use. For all general purposes, extem- 
poraneous speaking presents the most effective mode of delivery. 
It has the advantage of spontaneity in that the speaker's thought 
must be quite clear and forceful or he will not be able to select the 
most impressive words. He must think to the point, therefore. 
It furthermore has the advantage of arrangment and definiteness. 

3. Memoriter. In this mode of delivery the speaker has had 
time to prepare his thoughts definitely and to select the words. 
Ordinarily, he has put his ideas into writing, and has memorized 
the phraseology for delivery; or, it may be that he has simply 
memorized the arrangement and the words without having put the 
ideas into writing. The advantage of this mode of delivery is 
definiteness, the disadvantage is apt to be lack of spontaneity and 
forcefulness. 

Note: The student is urged to become acquainted with the rules of memory 
training in some such authoritative, yet readable, work as Professor C. E. 
Seashore's Psychology in Daily Life, Chapter II, Serviceable Memory, pp. 
38-68 (Appletons). 

4. Reading. As the title suggests, this is the mode in which 
the speaker has definitely prepared both the arrangement of his 
thought and the phraseology and put it into writing. He reads 
his thoughts to the auditor. This method possesses all the weak- 
nesses of the memoriter method together with the handicap that 
accompanies the inability of the speaker to look his auditor in the 
eye. It is quite essential that he keep his eye much of the time 
upon the printed page, or the written manuscript so that he may 
follow his words. It has the advantage of being definite, however, 
and many speakers have preferred to read their thoughts to the 
audience, when they felt unsafe in memorizing or in using the 
extempore or memoriter methods. 




48 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

5. Combination. The combination mode is that used when the 
one speaks, in part, impromptu or extempore with some section 
of his thoughts memorized; or, he may read points which he has 
wished to be very definite, from a manuscript or book. As the 
title suggests, it is a combination of one or more, or the use of all 
the modes of delivery. Its advantage and handicaps rest with the 
advantage and handicaps common to each of the four modes of 
delivery. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

1. What is meant by a "sensitive appreciation of meaning"? 

2. Do we think by means of words; can we think without words'? 

3. How do mental pictures or images influence our thoughts! 

4. What does the term "creative imagination" mean to you? 

5. What is meant by "purposive thinking"? 



6. 



> > 



speakers, adequate? 

7. What are the Dominant Purposes for speaking, suggested in the fore- 
going chapter? Do you agree with the list, or would you append others? (On 
this subject, the instructor may well assign references to the student on domi- 
nant purposes or general ends of speaking for reports in class. It is essential 
that the student develop a keen sense of purpose, of motive, in speaking.) 

8. Is the point of Principle No. 25 well-taken? 

9. What is meant by the term "evidence"? 

10. How do the Dominant Purposes listed in the chapter differ from one 
another? 

11. Make a list of ten well known suggestions to action. 

12. What is your attitude toward the merit of the list of qualities which 
contribute effectiveness in persuasion listed under Principle No. 27? 

13. Why do you think speakers so often do not look their auditors in the 
eye? 

14. What isnneant by the principle, "Establish your point"? 

15. Principle No. 31; what considerations influence the use of each of the 
modes of delivery? Generally considered, which mode best holds your atten- 
tion? Why? 

15. Give a talk, of definite time limit, in which your Dominant Purpose is, — » 

a. To inform, or 

b. To prove, or 

c. To persuade. 

16. Present to the class a "selling talk", of definite time limit, urging the 
points of merit of some article of commerce. At the close of your talk, meet 
in so far as is possible, the objections to purchasing the article that the mem- 
bers of the class may raise. 

17. Let the instructor select members of the class for a short series of de- 



EFFECTIVE SPEAKING 49 

bates the purpose of -which is to bring out the basis of truth as conceived by 
the speakers with reference to debatable questions. Select propositions that 
are o,f interest and within the full appreciation of the members of the class. 
Let the class vote at the close of each debate as to which side presented the 
more convincing and effective argument. This exercise may be. varied by as- 
signing to two members of the class the affirmative and the negative side of a 
proposition, respectively. After the debate, throw open the discussion to the 
class. 



Chapter III 

OUTLINE ARRANGEMENT 

The purpose of the first two chapters is to give a survey of the 
larger principles of speaking in so far as interest and effectiveness 
are concerned. Throughout these chapters the necessity of clear 
thinking has been emphasized. We now take up the discussion of 
Outline Arrangement of ideas which is important not only as an 
aid to the arrangement of ideas for any particular talk, but im- 
portant as a factor in developing habits of clear thinking. 

PRELIMINARY OUTLINE 

Collecting Material. For the usual types of conversation, one 
does not have the time to look up material. But for all speech 
purposes where the speaker's immediate information is inadequate, 
his first step should be the gathering of the data necessary. He 
should not attempt to form an adequate outline until he has fin- 
ished this preliminary work of collecting material. Furthermore, 
he should begin collecting his material a sufficient length of time 
before he is to give the talk so as to have opportunity for reflection 
and careful preparation. A rigorous devotion to careful outline 
arrangement in one's early period of training will establish habits 
of thinking to the point and of cumulating facts effectively. Such 
ability will, with a mind well stocked with information on the sub- 
jects at hand, increase one's speech efficiency to a marked degree. 
Says Professor Linn,* "Of course to anyone with a trained mind 
the process of organization becomes very largely mechanical. The 
matters of importance and of interest arrange themselves uncon- 
sciously in his mind. His point of view, like some chemical re- 
action, affects their specific gravity and they inevitably bob up 
to the surface of his mind. But such a desirable state of affairs 
is brought about only by practice and training, and for a long time 
any composition must be preceded by the most conscientious and 



*Essentials of English Composition, p. 13. 
50 



OUTLINE ARRANGEMENT 51 

conscious thinking out." In gathering material, first think the 
subject over, analyze it; then, begin to gather material by observa- 
tion, conversation, and reading. 

Analysis. "Think yourself empty, before you read yourself 
full", is good advice. If you begin to read on your subject, with- 
out adequate analysis, you will not know what to read nor what 
value to place on what you read. The first step is analysis. Go 
over the information you have in mind on the topic, finding out 
where the gaps occur in what you know to be trustworthy facts, 
then you will be ready to take the next steps which are observing, 
reading and conversing with reference to your subject. 

Reading. First try to find in the library the information you 
need to fill the gaps, to satisfy doubt or uncertainty. Your best 
friends in this quest are the librarian and the card catalogue. Each 
will give you references and following up these will lead you to 
other references and so on until you will have sufficient bibliogra- 
phy. Read, taking carefully compiled notes which you will have 
no difficulty in interpreting later. 

Observation. Observation must be appreciative. You must not 
only know what to look for and where to look, but be able to inter- 
pret when you see. The importance of observation as an aid in 
collecting material, will, of course, depend upon the subject at hand. 

Conversation. Get in touch with authorities on your subject. 
Meet them personally to get their enthusiasm or disregard toward 
your proposition. Wide conversation with those who have specific 
information is one of the chief methods of finding out worthwhile 
facts. Said Daniel Webster to Charles Sumner, in discussing the 
value of conversation, ' ' In my education, I have found that conver- 
sation with the intelligent men I have had the good fortune to 
meet has done more for me than books ever did; for I learn more 
from them in a talk of half an hour than I could possibly learn 
from their books. Their minds, in their conversations, come into 
intimate contact with my own mind; and I absorb certain secrets 
of their power, whatever be its quality, which I could not have 
detected in their works. Converse, converse, converse with living 
men, face to face, and mind to mind, — that is one of the best 
sources of knowledge." 

Retaining Facts Gathered. Some prefer to read without the 
interruption of note-making, depending upon the memory to retain 



52 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

the facts. For those who possess memories equal to the task, this 
method is quite satisfactory. But you should be sure that your 
memory is equal to the task before attempting it. At any rate, the 
memory must play a very large part in gathering data in the form 
of notes; so it is suggested that you refer to the note on memory 
training, p. 47. 

Another method of retaining facts, and for most people the best 
method, is the ''filing system". Your instructor or any stationer 
will be glad to explain these systems to you, and their use. Some 
are for sheets of paper, letter size, others for small cards, 3x5 or 
4x6 inches. Ordinarily the 3x5 inch card is large enough ; only 
one fact should be put on a card so that the facts may be readily 
arranged into groups when you come to the outline. 

Dominant Purpose and Minor Purpose. You should not con- 
fuse the Dominant Purpose of the whole talk with some of the 
minor purposes of your subsidiary points. These may not be iden- 
tical with the Dominant Purpose, though contributing to it. For 
instance, your Dominant Purpose may be to explain what is meant 
by the term ''speech training". To accomplish this, it may be 
necessary for you to prove that there are new methods today, more 
sound educationally, than those of old. Your minor purpose for 
this point then would become proof ; yet, it does not detract from 
The Dominant Purpose or conflict with it. It reinforces and sup- 
plements it. , 

Viewpoint. To establish the proper viewpoint toward your sub- 
ject, for the preliminary outlining, answer in your mind or def- 
initely on paper the following data: 

Viewpoint Standard 

What Dominant Purpose and Mode of Discussion do my 
auditor 1 
subject Y demand! 

occasion J 

What is my speaking time limit 1 

My Dominant Thought or Key Sentence is 

My supplementary points are 

Need I use an Introduction ? If so it should be 

Need I use a Conclusion? If so, it should be 

32. GO OVER POINTS OF PRELIMINARY OUTLINE ALOUD. 

This is quite essential, as by going over your points aloud you 
will become more able to select just what you wish for the perma- 



OUTLINE ARRANGEMENT 53 

nent outline. Talking over these points gives a sense of proportion, 
so that you can judge what points to give more time to and what 
points less, so as to keep within the time allotted you. This exer- 
cise also helps to fix more firmly in mind the major points of your 
discussion. 

PERMANENT OUTLINE 

Having determined the data of the Viewpoint Standard and gone 
over your points aloud a few times, next proceed to put your ideas 
into definite outline arrangement, according to the Dominant Pur- 
pose selected. 

Dominant Purpose: To Inform. With your subject of Domi- 
nant Thought in mind, 

a. Select the few main points you wish to present. 

b. Next, arrange these in the order of importance chronologically, 
logically, or upon some basis you deem effective. 

c. Take up your first point. Ask yourself what ideas you wish to 
present to make this point clear, interesting and effective. 

d. Arrange these sub-points in the order of importance. 

e. Then proceed in the same manner for the remaining points of 
your outline. 

f. Now take up each sub-head and repeat the process, until you 
feel your outline is complete. 

Note: If an introduction is used, select as its main point that 
which best introduces to the auditor the subject of the talk. Then, 
outline sub-heads as for any other point. Where a Conclusion is 
used, let it be a summary of the main points. 

Illustration 
Step 1. General subject, Education 

Narrowed subject, Types of Education; Speech Education; Speech 

Training 
Points selected 

I. What it is 
II. Practical applications 
III. Old and new methods of training 

Step 2. Order of importance determined 
I. What it is 
II. Old and New Methods of Training 
III. Practical applications 



54 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

Step 3. List sub-heads for first point 
I. What it is 

A. Training in pronunciation 

B. Training in articulation 

C. Training to think before others 

Step 4. Eearrange in order of importance 
I. What it is 

A. Training to think before others 

B. Training in articulation 

C. Training in pronunciation 

Step 5. Proceed in the same manner for the next main points 
II. Old and new methods of training 
III. Practical applications 

Step 6. Now return to the first sub-head and repeat the procedure 
A. Training to think before others 

1. Timidity 

2. Considering the interests of the auditor 

3. Practice 

Eearrange in the order of importance, and so on through the outline. 

A. Training to think before others 
t 1. Considering the interests of the auditor 

' "' 2. Timidity 

3. Practice 



Permanent Outline 

Subject: Speech Training 
I. What it is 

A. Training to think before others 

1. Considering the interests of the auditor 

2. Timidity 

3. Practice 

B. Training in articulation 

1 



C. Training in pronunciation 
1 

II. Old and new methods 

A 

1 

B 



OUTLINE ARRANGEMENT 55 

III. Practical applications 

A 

B 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Dominant Purpose: To Prove. The most satisfactory outline 
for this Dominant Purpose is similar to the Brief, in which each 
main point or contention is proved by the data of the sub-topics. 

Note : Outlining by means of the formal brief, like the rules of 
evidence, belongs to a specific course in argumentation. 

Dominant Purpose: To Persuade. In outlining for this Domi- 
nant Purpose, it is necessary to select specifically the mental habit, 
trait, or emotion you wish to appeal to. This may be accomplished 
by arranging three columns on your paper. In the left hand col- 
umn, place a statement of what you wish the auditor to do ; in the 
middle column, what mental habit you wish to appeal to; and in 
the right hand column, the phraseology of the suggestion of appeal. 

Illustration 
Arrangement for Listing Suggestions 



Buy a ticket to 
the ball game 


Loyalty 


"Support the team ,, 



EXPANDING THE OUTLINE 

33. OBSERVE THE QUALITIES OF GOOD USAGE IN ORAL STYLE. 

The outline may now be expanded into full and final form by 
oral rehearsal or by writing. In either case observe the rhetorical 
principles of 

Unity 

Emphasis 
Coherence 

In speaking from the outline guard against inelegant usage, 
especially incorrect grammar. Practice speaking from outlines. 

34. PRACTICE SPEAKING FROM PERMANENT OUTLINES. 



56 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

ASSIGNMENTS 

1. What is the importance of ''analysis" in preparing for a talk? 

2. How do you acquire information on a subject most readily, by reading, 
by observation, or by conversation? What are the particular merits of each 
method? 

3. Eeport to the class an adequate system of taking notes and of filing the 
same for ready reference on small cards. 

4. Report to the class an adequate system of taking notes and of filing 
them for ready reference on sheets of paper. 

5. Which method of filing notes do you, personally, prefer? 

6. What is meant by "viewpoint" in the preliminary outline? 

7. What are the advantages in going over the preliminary outline, aloud? 

8. Hand in a Viewpoint Standard as a preliminary analysis of some subject 
of interest to you. 

9. Hand in a Permanent Outline for the discussion of some subject of in- 
terest to you and to the class with the Dominant Purpose of giving information. 

10. Hand in an outline with the Dominant Purpose of proving, arranging 
the points of evidence one under the other logically. 

11. Hand in a list of suggestive appeals the purpose of which is to persuade 
to a definite line of action. 

12. What is meant by 

a. "expanding the outline"? 

b. "good usage in oral style"? 

13. Does oral style differ from written? How? 

14. What are the advantages of training in speaking from definitely pre- 
pared "permanent outlines"? 



Chapter IV 

CO-ORDINATION OF THOUGHT WITH VOICE AND 

ACTION 

The purpose of the foregoing part of the text has been to make 
clear the fact that the essential element in speech is thought, 
something to say, and clear thinking in the organization of ideas 
for expression. The purpose of the following chapters on the use 
of voice and gesture, on articulation and pronunciation, and on the 
speech instrument is to present the principles that should be ob- 
served in training for coordination. At this point in our study, 
we attempt to connect delivery with thought. 

35. CO-ORDINATE YOUR THOUGHT WITH VOICE AND ACTION. 

The meaning of the word, coordinate, is to adjust or to harmon- 
ize. In this sense let us consider the principle of coordination. 

If one wishes to learn to play the piano, he must train. Train 
what? The muscles that control the movement of the fingers and 
arms. Train them how? In such a fashion that they will cause 
the fingers to strike the right keys at the proper time. The problem 
confronting one who wishes to learn to play the piano is one of co- 
ordination. Before him is the sheet of music which can be read 
by the eye; before him also is the piano key-board. Yet there is 
no melody from the piano until he can bring together the notes of 
the instrument with the notes perceived upon the sheet of music. 
One may be able to think beautiful melodies for the piano, but no 
one else can appreciate these until they can be expressed through 
the keys of the piano. One must harmonize, coordinate, the thought 
of the mind with the muscles of the body. Why do coaches put 
football teams through such long and rigorous periods of training? 
To establish with the thought that must dominate the plays of the 
game quick and accurate muscular response, adjustment, harmony, 
coordination. Every muscle must respond automatically to the 
signal called for the play. Whether it is in the playing of the 
piano, carrying out a signal in a football game, throwing the basket 
in a basket-ball game, painting a picture, crocheting a pattern, 

57 



58 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

writing a letter, walking or talking, the thought of the mind must 
be coordinated with the muscles of the body for the execution of 
the action. 

The thought of the mind must find full response in the action 
of the body. The great singer is not able to produce the beautiful 
tone until he or she has trained the vocal cords to respond with 
the melody desired. One may have a definite thought in mind 
but not be able to put it into action ; for instance, one may be able 
to conceive of all the motions necessary to swim, yet not be able 
to swim actually. Training is necessary to establish coordination 
between the thought of the mind, and the movements of the body. 
The speaker may have clearly in mind his idea and yet may not 
be able to coordinate the organs of speech and gesture so as to com- 
municate his thought effectively. Through the long ages of the 
development of the human race and its mode of speaking, there 
have come certain inflections of the voice which carry a definite 
type of meaning, certain gestures which express a definite idea. 
One may understand the meaning of these inflections of voice, and 
gestures; yet, he will not be able to communicate thought and 
emotion to another individual unless he can reproduce the inflec- 
tions of the voice, and the gestures, indicative of the thought and 
emotion. 

36. SPEAK CONVERSATIONALLY. 

If speech is the medium through which two minds communicate 
their thought, the commonest form of coordination for the speaker 
is conversation: the basis, then, of all speech should be conversa- 
tion. For during the history of the race this has been built up 
as the type of speech to which we can listen most readily, and 
through which we gather ideas most rapidly. No one needs to be 
told what conversational speech is. We all are able to recognize 
a speaker who is not conversational, although no two speakers are 
conversational just alike. Generally considered, no student is apt 
to be found who in social relationship is unconversational or who 
in giving a simple narrative to the class of the events that have 
happened in some personal experience or in giving an exposition 
on some process or invention, will be unconversational. Therefore, 
we can work with a standard that is more or less uniform through- 
out the class. The period of training in which unconversational 



CO-ORDINATION 59 

delivery becomes apparent is that when we attempt to deliver talks 
that we have spoken before, that have become quite familiar to us. 
We repeat them more or less automatically without grasping the 
meaning, as we did when we spoke them for the first time. Or 
we meet the same difficulty when we attempt to read a selection to 
the members of the class. The student should not understand by 
the foregoing statement that all speakers, especially beginners, 
are perfect as conversational speakers. Imperfections will be dis- 
covered and ample room for development be found. The essence 
of conversational delivery is directness. Directness involves an at- 
titude of mind in which the speaker consciously thinks his thought 
out to his auditor. It is an attitude of mind in which the speaker 
is aware of his auditor's thinking with him, making objections or 
agreeing as he speaks : in other words, the auditor is thinking right 
along with the ideas expressed by the speaker. The chief foe to 
directness of speech found among students is the tendency to neg- 
lect the existence of the auditor. The student is apt to speak 
somewhat to himself, as though no listener existed. Straight for- 
wardness, simplicity, and sincerity are all embraced in the thought 
of conversational address. The auditor is very quick to note any 
artificiality of manner or of tone as the speaker gives forth his 
thought. 

In his book, Elements of Public Speaking, Houghton discusses 
the Conversational Mode as follows: "The first principle of de- 
livery that the young speaker has to learn is that sonorous tones 
and spectacular gestures do not constitute effective speaking, and 
that voice and gesture are not ends in themselves, but are merely 
means for the sincere expression of one's thought and feeling. . . . 
The demand of the present day, is for speaking of a conversational, 
business-like type, without display or fustian, that carries a mes- 
sage straight to the hearers in the most unaffected manner possible. 
.... All effective speaking should have as its basis plain conver- 
sation — the direct communication between man and man .... 
when a man sits down to discuss a topic with a friend, he does not 
assume an artificial tone of voice; neither are his vocal inflections 
monotonous and inexpressive. On the conrary, they are quite the 
opposite, his tone of voice is that of very natural conversation, and 
his inflections, pauses, and the like, give the natural variety of 
expression that conveys in a very clear manner the ideas he is 



60 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

trying to present. Exactly the same thing should be done if he 
were to stand before an audience to express his views upon a given 
subject. " 

The relationship between the conversation that is used in in- 
formal speaking and that used in the somewhat more formal type 
or address, termed Public Speaking, is well illustrated in Winan 's* 
conception. In his chapter on Conversing With An Audience, he 
says, "Imagine all memory of speech-making to be blotted out, so 
there is no person in the world who remembers that he has ever 
made a speech or heard a speech. Imagine, too, all speeches and 
all references to speeches in literature, to be blotted out; so that 
there is no clue to this art. Is this the end of speech making? 
Here comes a man who has seen a great race, or has been in a great 
battle, or is on fire with enthusiasm for a cause. He begins to 
talk with a friend he meets on the street; others gather, twenty, 
fifty, a hundred. Interest grows intense; he lifts his voice that 
all may hear. But the crowd wishes to hear and see the speaker 
better. 'Get upon this cart! 7 they cry; and he mounts the cart 
and goes on with his story or his plea. A private conversation has 
become public speech; but under the circumstances imagined it is 
thought of only as a conversation, as an enlarged conversation. 
It does not seem abnormal, but quite the natural thing. "When 
does the talker or converser become a speech maker? When ten 
persons gather? Fifty? Or is it when he gets on the cart? Is 
there any real change in the nature or the spirit of the act? Is it 
not essentially the same throughout, a conversation adapted to the 
growing number of his hearers as the talker proceeds? There 
may be a change, of course, if he becomes self-conscious; but as- 
suming that interest in story or argument remains the dominant 
emotion, there is no essential change in his speaking. It is proba- 
ble that with the increasing importance of his position and the in- 
creasing tension of feeling that come with numbers, he gradually 
modifies his tone and his diction, and permits himself to launch 
into a bolder strain and a wider range of ideas and feeling than 
in ordinary conversation; but the change is in degree and not in 
kind. He is conversing with an audience. ..." 

"I wish you could see that public speaking is a perfectly normal 



■Winans, .J. A. Public Speaking, pp. 20, 21. 



CO-ORDINATION 61 

act, which calls for no strange artificial methods, but only for an 
extension and a development of that most familiar act, conversation. 
If you grasp this idea you will be saved from much wasted effort. ' ' 

VOICE 

37. MAKE MEANING CLEAR BY EMPHASIS. 

Engage in conversation with some friend, or listen to a public 
address: as the speaker talks how do you gather meaning from 
what he says? How does he convey to you important as well as 
relatively unimportant mental pictures and ideas? Does he use a 
monotone and a constant intensity as he speaks, or does he use 
some variety of voice inflection and of intensity? How do you ascer- 
tain when he closes a thought, that is, does he use any inflection of 
voice which conveys to you the same idea as the period in written 
composition? Does he communicate to you any strong emotion? 
It is quite apparent that there is a power in the voice to convey 
meaning. Through the development of the forms of expression in 
the human race, there have come certain definite modes of thought 
communication. These forms of communication we have observed 
from childhood and practised in our relationships with one another 
to convey our thoughts, our wants, our likes and dislikes. No one 
individual communicates his thoughts just like another, yet it is 
possible to understand the meanings of all. Some convey their 
meanings to us more readily than others, because they possess a 
facility in the use of the forms of expression over those who do not. 
A stress of voice on one idea gives us the conception that that idea 
is more important than the unstressed idea. Thus, we distinguish 
thought relationships. By the forms of emphasis the voice con- 
veys meanings. There is no definite relationship between the use 
of any one form of emphasis and the expression of an idea. A 
thought may be conveyed by one person using a certain type of 
emphasis ; but the same thought may be conveyed as adequately by 
another person using an entirely different type of emphasis. Cer- 
tain persons excel in the use of certain forms of emphasis. We 
may profit by determining what forms of emphasis we use success- 
fully. Then observe the speech of those who use successfully the 
forms not so common to our mode of expression. Adopt their 
methods of emphasis, also, in so far as naturalness permits. 



62 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

Referring again to the above speaker, did you note how he 
stressed the important thoughts and the new thoughts, minimizing 
the emphasis given the unimportant ideas ? Yet, he did not speak 
without any variation ; there was an emphasis characterizing minor 
ideas, too, though of a negative kind. We may think of the forms 
of emphasis, then, as being positive when they are used to bring 
out the new and most important thoughts, and as being negative 
when they aid the mind of the listener still to hold the distinction 
between the unimportant ideas. The forms of emphasis remain the 
same whether positive or negative, except that we accentuate the 
form of emphasis used when we desire the positive type. In the 
following sentence, 

' ' Life is real ; life is earnest ; ' ' 

we give the words, "real" and "earnest" a positive emphasis; 
retaining a negative emphasis on the two words, "life is," for of 
the two, the word "life" is the more important. 

There are four forms of emphasis by means of which the voice 
conveys meaning, — thought and emotion. These are Force, Pitch, 
Time, and Pause or Word Grouping. 

Speech always has a dominant thought. A speaker may take 
an hour to discuss before an audience the benefits of education in 
our regular schools. Regardless of how many facts or illustrations 
he refers to, he has a dominant thought or purpose in mind, namely, 
to point out the benefits of school education. And all the minor 
thoughts will bear a relationship to this dominant thought. On 
the other hand, two friends in a five minute visit over school days 
will in their conversation have a dominant thought to which all 
lesser thoughts are relevant, namely, "experiences of school days". 
Or, of course, they may have as many dominant thoughts as there 
have been subjects discussed between them. Actors before an 
audience portray characters and their actions, all of which converge 
toward a dominant thought, — the main thought of the drama. 
Every paragraph of literature possesses a dominant thought rele- 
vant to the whole discussion and likewise every sentence a dom- 
inant thought relevant to the paragraph. How, then, do we make 
apparent in speech these gradations of importance in thought? 
In other words, how do we speak out meaning ? The answer is by 
emphasis. 



CO-ORDINATION 63 

In a monotone voice, where words are pronounced with equal 
speed, there is no appreciation of thought content and of meaning. 
Repeat the following sentences in such a voice, noticing the fact: 

11 'Forward the Light Brigade' 
Charge for the guns,' he said." 

This is the happiest day of my life! 

Few of us ever stop to think how and by what means we 
speak out thought content. This may account for the many in- 
expressive and monotonous voices we hear every day. 

What do we mean, then, by emphasis ? Emphasis is an inflection, 
a break of inflection, or a group of inflections of the voice upon a 
syllable, word or phrase interpreting the thought. There are four 
forms of emphasis : 1. Force, 2. Pitch, 3. Time, and 4. Pause and 
Word Grouping. 

1. Force: The emphasis of force is a sudden increase or de- 
crease in the loudness or intensity of the general tone upon the 
emphatic thought. Speak the following sentences and note how 
thought is made clearer by additional force or stress of voice upon 
the italicized words ; then read suddenly decreasing the force upon 
the stressed words. 

"They reported that his answer was an emphatic No." 

"Life is real, life is earnest 
And the grave, is not its goal : 
Dust thou art, to dust returnest, 
Was not spoken of the soul. 
Not enjoyment and not sorrow 
Is our destined end or way 
But to act that each tomorrow 
Finds us farther than to-day." 

2. Pitch: The emphasis of pitch is the speaking of the em- 
phatic thought in a higher or lower tone on the music scale. 
Thoughts may be emphasized by the preceding inflection, force, 
without varying the location of the tone on the music scale. Only 
the degree of loudness suggests the emphasis. But in emphasis of 
pitch, the degree of loudness may or may not be varied while the 
location of the tone on the music scale must be varied. The greater 
the emphasis desired the higher or lower is the emphatic thought 
spoken. The most effective drill for breaking up a monotone is 



64 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

practice in speaking or reading, bringing out thought content by 
means of the emphasis of pitch. 

Read the first few lines of Hamlet's Soliloquy, on Life and Death, 
in a monotone. Then employ variety in pitch in the reading and 
the interpretation will be more clear. 

not 

that 's 
To be to be 

or the question. 

The meaning of the closing phrases of Lincoln's Gettysburg 
Address is also made clearer by this form of emphasis. 



that government — of the o 

P 

I 

e 
b 

the people 

y 
f 

o the people 
r 
not 
shall from 

perish the 

earth. 

3. Time: The emphasis of time is rate: the rapid or slow pro- 
nunciation of the emphatic word or words. This form of emphasis 
differs from pause in that it always intonates the word or words to 
be emphasized while the pause always requires silence between 
such words. There are certain thoughts which no form of emphasis 
will interpret as satisfactorily as time. For instance, a person is 
late to a train and an anxious friend already aboard cries out, 
"Hurry, hurry, hurry, hurry!" The words are pronounced in 
rapid rate or time and urge rapid movement. Or imagine the 
cheering words on the bleachers at a football game. "Rah! Rah! 
Rah! Rah!" is repeated vigorously, vitally, and rapidly. Now 
repeat aloud pronouncing very slowly the above words, imagining 
the respective scenes and the correctness of rapid pronunciation 



CO-ORDINATION 65 

will be apparent at once. An individual probably would not walk 
calmly into a school room and quietly, although wisely, in a drawl- 
ing slowly timed emphasis, advise action with, 

"I w-i-s-h y-o-u w-o-u-l-d a-1-1 1-e-a-v-e t-h-e b-u-i-1-d-i-n-g a-t 
o-n-c-e f-o-r i-t i-s o-n f-i-r-e ! " 

King Robert of Sicily, when he waked from his sleep and dis- 
covered beside him the "wretched ape", would not snap out the 
words rapidly as in haste ; but rather in keeping with the slowness 
of any mind just awakening from slumber. 

"Next morning, waking with the day's first beam 
He said within himself, ' It — was — a — dream. ' ' ' 

Then the reader suggests how Robert's mind begins to take in 
the situation: the rate of rapidity with which the words are pro- 
nounced increases. 

"But the straw rustled as he turned his head, 
There were the cap and bells beside his bed, 
Around him rose the bare discolored walls, 
Close by, the steeds were champing in their stalls, 
And in the corner, a revolting shape 
Shivering and chattering sat the wretched ape! 
It was no dream; the world he loved so much 
Had turned to dust and ashes at his touch. ' ' 

The first stanza of Macaulay's "Battle of Ivry" requires rapidity 
of movement to interpret its thought of victory. 

Now glory to the Lord of Hosts, from whom all glories are! 

And glory to our Sovereign Liege, King Henry of Navarre. 

Now let there be the merry sound of music and the dance, 

Through thy corn-fields green, and sunny vales, O pleasant land of France ! 

And thou, Eochelle, our own Rochelle, proud city of the waters, 

Again let rapture light the eyes of all thy mourning daughters; 

As thou wert constant in our ills, be joyous in our joy, 

For cold and stiff and still are they who wrought thy walls annoy. 

Hurrah! hurrah! a single field hath turned the chance of war. 

Hurrah! hurrah! for Ivry and King Henry of Navarre! 

4. Pause and Word Grouping: The emphasis of pause is the 
cessation of tone before or after an emphatic word. In the brief 
interval between the pronunciation of emphatic words the auditor 
has the opportunity to reflect upon their significance and thus the 
thought they convey is called to the listeners' mind more strongly. 




66 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

And should the auditor 's thoughts have wandered from those which 
the speaker is presenting the pause has a tendency to bring the 
attention of the mind of the auditor back to the speaker's dis- 
cussion, thus imparting at least the most important ideas. When 
the content of thought is weighty and impressive it is almost an 
impossibility to interpret the meaning by any form of emphasis 
except the pause. Of course, the duration of the pause varies 
with the degree of emphasis desired. There may be shorter pauses 
and longer pauses. Referring again to Hamlet's Soliloquy, note 
as the first line is read aloud how adequate a means of emphasis the 
pause is and how inadequately the line is read without the pause. 
Single marks between words may suggest shorter pauses while two 
or more marks denote longer pauses. 

1 ' To be || or not | to be. 1 1 1 That 's 1 1 the question. ' ' 

The term "word grouping" itself suggests the form of emphasis. 
Word grouping means the arrangement of words logically, accord- 
ing to the thoughts they symbolize. Improper word grouping ob- 
scures the meaning. Proper word grouping tends to make the 
meaning clear. Read for example, the following in a monotone 
at equal rate of pronunciation with no attempt to express meaning. 

"Give me a theme the little poet cried and I will 
do my part 'tis not a theme you need the world 
replied you need a heart." 

Now re-read the above and try to get the meaning. The reader 
at once notices a tendency to break the paragraph up into groups 
somewhat as follows, — 

"Give me a theme 
The little poet cried 
And I will do my part 
'Tis not a theme you need 
The world replied 
You need a heart." 

Re-read the above again and let the reader notice a tendency to 
place a longer pause after the word "part" than after any other 
group. Suppose we re-write the above with one short line | sig- 
nifying a short pause, two lines || signifying a longer pause and 






CO-ORDINATION 67 

three lines [|| a much longer pause than either of the preceding. 
We would have, — 

"Give me a theme | the little 
poet cried | and I will do my 
part | 'tis not a theme | 
you need || the world replied | 
you I need a heart. 



1 1 



These group meanings the printer attempts to bring out, although 
inadequately at times, by punctuation. The printer would write 
the above in the following manner, — 

1 ■ Give me a theme, ' ' the little poet cried, 

1 ' And I will do my part. ' ' 
1 ■ 'Tis not a theme you need, ' ' the world replied, 

"You need a heart." 

— Richard Watson Gilder. 

Notice in the following passages how meaning is made clear 
or obscure according to the word grouping. 

1 ■ And he spake to his sons saying Saddle me the ass and they saddled him. ' ' 
I Kings xiii, 27. 

The persons inside the coach were Mr. Miller a clergyman his son a lawyer 
Mr. Angelo a foreigner his lady and a little child. 

"I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills from whence cometh my help || my 
help cometh from the Lord which made heaven and earth." . 

I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills ||| from whence cometh my help | my 
help cometh from the Lord which made heaven and earth. Bible — Psa. 121: 
1 and 2. 

Esau Wood sawed wood. Esau Wood would saw wood. All the wood Esau 
Wood saw Esau would saw. In other words, all the wood Esau saw to saw 
Esau sought to saw. Oh, the wood Wood would saw! And oh! the wood-saw 
with which Wood would saw wood! But one day Wood's wood-saw would 
saw no wood, and thus the wood Wood sawed was not the wood Wood would 
saw if Wood's wood-saw would saw wood. Now, Wood would saw wood with 
a wood-saw that would saw wood, so Esau sought a saw that would saw wood. 
One day Esau saw a saw saw wood as no other wood-saw Wood saw would saw 
wood. In fact, of all the wood-saws Wood ever saw saw wood Wood never 
saw a wood-saw that would saw wood as the wood-saw Wood saw saw wood 
would saw wood, and I never saw a wood-saw that would saw as the wood-saw 
Wood saw would saw until I saw Esau Wood saw wood with the wood-saw 
Wood saw saw wood. Now Wood saws wood with the wood-saw Wood saw 
saw wood. 



68 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

Prof. S. H. Clark 1 tells a story of the principal of a high school 
in Germany "who entered the class room when the teacher of 
English was giving a lesson in punctuation, and particularly on 
the use of the comma. The principal did not believe in this kind 
of instruction and told the teacher so, who, after the principal had 
gone, wrote these words on the blackboard: 'The teacher says the 
principal is a fool.' When the principal saw the teacher again 
he was very angry and said, 'What do you mean by calling me a 
fool?' And the principal wrote the sentence on the blackboard. 
The teacher replied, ' 'Oh, yes, that's what I wrote; but you said, 
Mr. Principal, that commas didn't make any difference, so I 
paid no attention to them; but if you had not objected I should 
have written the sentence like this: 'The teacher, says the prin- 
cipal, is a fool'." 

38. COMMUNICATE EMOTION BY THE FORMS OF EMFHASIS PLUS 
VOICE QUALITY. 

It is next to impossible to state exactly how specific emotions or 
moods are communicated. Individuals differ so widely in their 
methods expressing emotions. Some are more emotional than others 
temperamentally and hence more emotional as speakers. Some 
suppress their emotions habitually. It is unnecessary in a text of 
this kind to enter into any elaborate discussion of the nature of 
emotion. No one will misunderstand what is meant by the term; 
we all feel mentally and spiritually, we are emotional beings. The 
one problem concerned with in this study is how emotional beings 
communicate their feelings. Even in this, no one will misunderstand 
what is meant by emotional expression. You have the power to 
utter the simple word, "no" in such a manner as to convey the 
emotional meaning of finality, interrogation, doubt, etc. You can 
speak the common word "yes" with an emotional expression of 
anger, surprise or grief. Suppose you try, before you read further, 
to express with the voice using the words "no" or "yes" the above 
six emotions. As you gave expression to the words, did you not 
find it necessary to feel the emotion you wished to interpret ? Did 
you not put yourself in some imaginary situation where you found 
it necessary to think the emotion as well? This is the key to 
emotional expression: think and feel the emotion and except in 



i Clark, S. H., Interpretation of the Printed Page, p. 178. 



CO-ORDINATION 69 

rare instances the voice will respond automatically and effectively 
with the right quality. 

But at this point you say, "I have heard people utter thought 
that was emotional yet without any quality of voice expressive of 
the right emotion or any indication that they understood the emo- 
tional value of their thought." True; and it is with this fact that 
our discussion must deal. Your remark will characterize some 
members of your class, possibly yourself as well, who in a recitation 
or in association with strangers become self-conscious or unable to 
think the full values of their thought and speak as though oblivious 
to the emotional significance of their words. It may be that, in- 
stead of being self-conscious, they habitually restrain emotional 
expression. Be that as it may, interesting and effective speaking 
demand to same degree emotional expression of thought. Emo- 
tional expression must coordinate the thought with the proper voice 
quality: it would be artificial to describe the beauty of a scene in 
tones of anger ; or, surprise, in the tones of pity. 

Read aloud the following, vocalizing the emotion vividly and 
vigorously, — 

"The straw-pile! What delight we had in that! What joy it was to go to 
the top where the men were stationed, one behind the other, and to have them 
toss huge forkfuls of the light fragrant stalks upon us, laughing to see us 
emerge from our golden cover." — Hamlin Garland.* 

Re-read it, this time endeavoring to judge how you bring out 
the emotional values. As you re-read the selection, did you not 
see yourself in an imaginary straw-pile, or recall just such an ex- 
perience as Mr. Garland describes? The first time you read the 
passage, was not your chief concern with the meaning of the 
words? After you understood the thought of the description you 
were able to attach to it its emotional significance, in other words, 
to appreciate the sentiment. Is not the appreciation of meaning, 
then, the prime requisite for emotional expression? First one 
must understand the full meaning of his idea, that is fundamental, 
then he must seek to express its emotional significance. 

If you analyze the quality of voice with which you spoke the 
above passage, you will find that you used the forms of emphasis, 
one or more of them. But your expression included more than 



A Son of the Middle Border, p. 54. 



70 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

that. There were peculiar qualities of voice resonance which you 
have developed from childhood up expressive of joy and gayety. 
It is immaterial for this study how you got these qualities and how 
you came to coordinate them with these emotions. Accept that 
as a fact. We may say, then, that emotional thought is expressed 
by coordinating the idea with the forms of emphasis to bring out 
meaning and with voice quality to convey emotional appreciation. 
Power of emotional expression in speech can be developed by ' ' free- 
ing the emotional nature": be sociable, be sociable, be sociable, 
intelligently so. 

ACTION 

By the term "action" is meant all posture, gesture, or move- 
ment of the body expressive of thought and emotion. Possibly 
a better term would be simply that of gesture, writers in this field 
permit such usage. Mosher* defines gesture as follows : i ' Gesture 
may be broadly defined as visible expression, that is, any posture 
or movement of the head, face, body, limbs, or hands, which aids 
the speaker in conveying his message by appealing to the eye." 
But for the sake of being more specific, in this discussion the term 
gesture will refer more to the movement of the arms or hands. 

We now return to an amplification of Principle No. 20, set forth 
in the chapter on Attention and Interest, Develop Poise, Posture, 
and Gesture Interpretative of the Thought You Wish to Com- 
municate. 

All positions, movements and gestures in speech, whether on a 
platform or off, before many people or before one person, should 
be in keeping with the thought and emotion being uttered. Fur- 
thermore, position, movement and gesture should be natural, should 
facilitate the transmission of ideas, not hinder. 

Physical movement is a proper and legitimate means of convey- 
ing thought, a means that should be developed and cultivated. 
But care should be taken not to overdo it. Generally considered, 
little movement is preferable to much movement. Too much real- 
ism is apt to detract from the thought of the speaker more than 
less realism which at the same time is suggestive. The beginner 
should practice much, in private, to gain control of the muscles of 



*Mosher, J. A. The Essentials of Effective Gesture, p. 3. 



CO-ORDINATION 71 

the body. It is also highly desirable that positions, movements and 
gestures be practiced before a full-length mirror as often as con- 
venient. There is no better method of obtaining sympathetic crit- 
icism than by seeing one's self as others see him. Actors and 
interpretative artists find the mirror an indispensable aid and even 
such renowned speakers as Wendell Phillips, Henry Ward Beecher 
and Phillips Brooks were not averse to its criticisms. 

The positions and movements of the body are called positive 
when they are in keeping with the thought of the speaker, and 
are called negative when they detract from the thought or are 
meaningless. Slouchy position, shuffling and shambling movement 
of the feet and legs or disconcerting arrangements of the hands 
and arms are negative; they should be avoided. The positive 
posture is the intelligent attitude and it is commanding at all times. 
Comparison of the postures of good speakers and poor speakers 
will soon enable the student to judge for himself between these 
aegative and positive attitudes. 

Impersonation 

Impersonation is the portraying of character. It is realistic 
and belongs to the actor's art, where the speaker has all the aid 
of stage accessories such as scenery, costumes, wigs, etc. The in- 
terpretative reader and the speech-maker should not impersonate. 
If they speak the words of another the meaning is often made 
clearer if impersonation is suggested. The inappropriateness of 
too much impersonation is brought out in the following incident: 
A student had a phrase in his oration, "In that day truth will 
light the fires of justice." As he spoke the words "will light the 
fires of justice," he scratched an imaginary match along his lifted 
trouser leg, much to the amusement of his audience. Yet, it some- 
times happens that the rendition of a word picture demands con- 
siderable realism ; such is the case when Macbeth draws his sword 
to pierce the ghost of Banquo or when Ben Hur swings his huge 
whip over the backs of his steeds in the Chariot Race. Still, even 
then, it is not necessary to sheathe the sword or to lay down the 
whip. In impersonation, in dramatic action on the stage the stu- 
dent should carefully work out all the positions, movements and 
gestures of the character he is playing both while the character 



72 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

is speaking and while not speaking. Success in impersonation 
depends upon this ability of the student to present to the auditor's 
eye and ear a satisfying portrayal. 

The Speechmaker's Position and Movement 

The best position for the speechmaker is body and head erect 
with the feet placed slightly apart at the heels and at an angle of 
about forty degrees. The feet should be so placed, one foot in 
advance of the other, that a line drawn lengthwise through the 
advanced foot will pass through the heel of the back foot. The 
body should stand easily in a positive attitude. No attempt should 
be made to throw the shoulders far back and the head so as to 
conform with the military posture unless the body by nature is 
that erect. On the other hand, neither the shoulders nor the head 
should be allowed to droop so as to weaken the posture and make 
it negative. The rule is not bad which directs one to stand erect, 
lifting up the chest, by imagining he is suspended from the ceiling 
by a cord attached to the upper chest. This conception at least 
will bring the chest up to an active and positive position and 
cause one properly to throw the weight of the body somewhat 
equally upon the heel and ball of the advanced foot and on the 
ball of the back foot. 

Unless the speaker possesses a very motive temperament and 
must express his thoughts by much action, the less a speaker moves 
before an audience, the better. Even some of our most dramatic 
speakers have been known to please an audience better by less 
movement than was the speaker's habit. It is quite safe to con- 
sider, at any rate, that the more thoughtful an audience is, the less 
action there will be necessary for a proper hearing. Stephen A. 
Douglas on the Western "Stump-speaking" tours might please his 
audience best by dramatically removing his heavy coat at the first 
climax of his speech, his lighter coat at the second, his waist coat 
at the third, and his tie and collar at the closing climax of his 
harangue. But when he entered the halls of Congress and tried 
the same spectacularisms upon some of the thoughtful statesmen 
of the time he met with ridicule. The thought is the thing. Sub- 
ordinate all else. 

Gesture 

Gestures are movements of the arms and hands emphasizing 
the thought and emotion of the speaker. Every gesture should 



CO-ORDINATION ' 73 

possess three essential parts, namely, the Preparation, the Stroke, 
and the Return. Grace and ease of gesture should be cultivated. 
The Preparation is that part of the gesture in which the arm 
and hand are lifted from the side of the body to the position where 
the stroke is to be given upon the emphatic idea spoken. The prepa- 
ration should begin with the movement of the elbow then the hand, 
with the arm slightly curved at the elbow. The hand should not 
be moved directly in the shortest line from the side of the body 
to the position of the stroke, but in an approach to an arc front- 
wards through what is called the "Arc of the Preparation". This 
instruction is not difficult to follow and with practice it will become 
entirely natural. 

The Stroke is that jerk or spring of the hand which is made as 
the emphatic idea is spoken. The Stroke is the climax of the ges- 
ture and should never be omitted. Omit the Preparation unless 
the stroke is to be given. There are no exceptions to this rule, 
except in gestures of a dramatic and descriptive nature and even 
then it is safe to say that the Stroke is given although it is timed 
slowly. 

The Return of the gesture refers merely to the returning of the 
hand and arm to the side of the body over the shortest line possible 
after the stroke has been made. The arm should of course not 
be jerked back into place, but it should be lowered quickly, grace- 
fully and easily, without attracting attention. 

The hand is the most expressive part of the gesture. There are 
five main shapes of the hand for gesture purposes. They are the 
Index, the Supine, the Prone, the Averse, and the Clenched hands. 
The Index hand is the most mental of all the gestures, it is dis- 
criminative and logical. The forefinger is extended while the other 
fingers are closed in subordinately, concealing the palm. 

The Supine hand is the open hand, palm upward, with the 
fingers gracefully curved to relieve what might seem stiff and 
straight fingers. This hand is particularly effective in declaration, 
assertion, affirmation, concession, welcome, submission, asking, giv- 
ing, etc. 

The Prone hand is the Supine hand reversed. The palm is down- 
wards. It suggests reproof, restraint, protection, location, sup- 
pression, blessing, beneficence, etc. 

The Averse hand is similar to the Supine or Prone, except that 
the palm of the hand is toward the audience. This position of the 



74 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

hand is expressive of aversion, horror, fear, repulsion, loathing, 
admonition, reproof, denial, rejection, amazement, surprise, etc. 

In the Clenched hand the fingers are drawn into the hollow of the 
palm and held in a gripped manner. The fist is clenched for phys- 
ical combat. This hand shape is expressive of intense emotion, 
passion such as rage, defiance, hate, revenge, determination, strong 
conviction, etc. 

All other hands are more or less made up of the above five main 
shapes. The Index gesture, of course, is never made with but the 
one hand, generally the right. But all other gestures may be 
doubled, that is, made with both hands and arms. The sweep of 
the gesture, generally, should be confined to the region around the 
height of the chest and shoulders; but it may extend as high, as 
low, or as far outward, as the hand can be extended without de- 
stroying the poise of the body. 

Oral Interpretation — Reading 

The public reader, the entertainer, the speaker, the actor, the 
teacher of literature and others are called upon to transfer to audi- 
tors the emotions and thoughts of the printed page by means of 
the spoken word. An ability to clothe the lines with life — an 
ability to see, through the words, the facts, scenes and feelings 
which gave rise to the author's thoughts in the first place, — this 
is the prime requisite of an effective reader. Interpretation is the 
communicating of this appreciation to another mind. By inter- 
pretation we mean the art of conveying, naturally, another's 
thoughts and emotions to auditors by the reader's appeal to his 
own imagination and experiences. 

"We "live, move and have our being" in emotional life. By its 
estimates we rate, ultimately, most of the facts of life. The scholar 
searches for facts and knowledge that will contribute to the pleas- 
ureableness of mankind. The scientist and inventor labor to yield 
to the people of their generation less irksome living. The lawyers 
and judges endeavor to quell the ill feelings between litigants and 
thus to establish a degree of felicity. The statesman, the warrior, 
the doctor, the minister, the merchant all utilize their abilities in 
the attempt to satisfy demands which in the ultimate appeal are 
to the emotional life. 



CO-ORDINATION 75 

Consequently, no one who proposes to interpret the thoughts of 
literature to an auditor dares hope for success until his own emo- 
tional nature has been developed to a high degree of responsiveness. 

By emotional appreciation is not meant sentimentalism. Nothing 
so combats the effectiveness of an interpreter of literature before 
an auditor as when the interpreter gives way to his own emotions. 
The reader's task is so to interpret the thoughts and emotions of 
others that he transfers his appreciation to his audience ; but unless 
he holds himself under perfect control, he will call forth only pity 
and sympathy for himself, and thus defeat his purpose. 

The problem, then, of the interpreter is so to impart thought 
and mood to the audience that the auditors will catch the emotion 
which dominated the author of the selection. The interpreter, as 
the word implies, is a middle man translating the feeling of an 
author from symbols on the pages to the hearers. The ability to 
catch quickly and accurately the emotions and thoughts of the 
author and so to translate them to an audience that those who hear 
will experience the author's feelings is a pearl of great price to be 
sought after and to be acquired, not by payment of money, but by 
devotion to this ideal and purpose. 

A word of caution that is always timely should be emphasized 
here. We are apt to make our ideals the interpretations of some 
great reader or speaker, or possibly accept as the best renditions, 
those of an instructor. Such is all very good and we may feel 
gratified if we can ever approach the interpretative abilities of 
some of our present day artists. But their methods and renditions 
should never be imitated. Each one should think out the thoughts 
and feelings of literature for himself and make all interpretations 
relative to the facts and emotions of his own experience. It is 
so easy to imitate the intonations, inflections and mannerisms of an 
artist who has moved us, but how subtle a foe it is to our own 
possibilities of influence ! 

By the definition of interpretation it becomes necessary for us 
to relate as far as is possible all of an author's meanings to our 
own experiences. By "this means only can we appreciate them 
ourselves to say nothing of interpreting them to the minds of 
others. It stands to reason we have not had the identical experi- 
ences of the author when he wrote, so how may we approximate 
them? When Longfellow wrote "The Day is Done", he saw the 



76 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

darkness of evening falling over the landscape with the descending 
mist of rain. As the lights began to peer out from the cottage 
windows in the village, he felt the mood of the evening, 

"And a feeling of sadness comes o'er me 
That my soul cannot resist. 

A feeling of sadness and longing that is not akin to pain 
And resembles sorrow only as the mist resembles rain. ' ' 

"We can interpret this poem by "vicarious experience." This 
)rinciple refers to the experience of the thought and emotion of 
another through the substitution in our own imagination of thoughts 
and emotions as nearly identical with those of the author as possi- 
ble. In other words, by ' ' Vicarious Experience ' ' we mean imagin- 
ing what the author saw, heard, perceived, thought and felt when 
he constructed the lines. To be more concrete; suppose we desire 
to interpret ' ' The Day is Done ' '. One prime requisite is necessary. 
We must possess powers of imagination. These powers may be 
built up by exercise, but we must possess the faculty. We must 
frame the pictured thoughts of the author in the mind's eye. In 
building up the picture in the mind's eye this psychological prin- 
ciple must be borne in mind that we cannot imagine anything 
except as we have experienced it. The imagination always builds 
its picture by putting together parts whch the mnd's eye has per- 
ceived at one time or another. That which has never been seen nor 
experienced cannot be imagined. No one of us has ever been on 
the planet Mars nor in the Paradise which we term Heaven. If 
we try to imagine these places we build the picture from that which 
we have experienced. We think of the people of Mars, if the planet 
is inhabited, as of flesh and blood. We say Heaven has streets 
paved with gold. Likewise if we are to interpret Longfellow's 
poem, we must imagine as nearly as possible what Longfellow ex- 
perienced while he wrote the poem by appealing to what we have 
seen, heard and thought. We substitute our own mental image 
for the author 's and we succeed in so far as we are able to imagine 
the identical mental image of the author. It would aid us greatly 
if we could look through the same window upon an evening very 
similar to that described in the poem and see for ourselves the 
lights of the village. But most of us have had similar views, so 
we can imagine the scene quite readily. Then we recall the mood 
we felt on those occasions, a mood approximating that described 



CO-ORDINATION 77 

by Longfellow. And as we request the reading of "some humbler" 
poet, the mind must react to the exhilaration it has experienced 
from the reading of the simpler poetry in distinction with "the 
strains of martial music" from "the bards sublime whose distant 
footsteps echo through the corridors of time." Similarly, by means 
of the principle of "vicarious experience" we interpret the closing 
verses, 

1 ' And the night shall be filled with music, 
And the cares that infest the day, 
Shall fold their tents like the Arabs 
And silently steal away. - ' 

The principle of vicarious experience has nothing to do with the 
voice nor with expression. It provides the method whereby the 
reader prepares himself, his mind, for expression. Oftentimes, 
especially among beginners, too little attention is given to this 
preliminary mental preparation, which is equally essential with ex- 
pression itself to success in the art of interpretation. 

Dramatic Interpretation 

Amateur productions of the drama are becoming quite popular among both 
younger and older folk. Almost every high school, college and city has its 
annual dramatic activities. The exercise is educational and worthy of encour- 
agement. The principles of dramatic interpretation are the same as for read- 
ing except the actor makes all possible use of stage accessories, special lights, 
and the emotional stimuli of music, rain and thunder imitations, etc. The 
actor must impersonate and interpret the character he plays. 

The following routine is offered as a logical and much used schedule for 
coaching a play: 

1. Selection of the cast. 

2. A reading of the whole play with all players present. 

3. Rehearsal of the parts working out the "business" or stage directions 
for each player all the time he or she is before the audience. 

4. Rehearsal of the play complying with the stage directions, with all cues 
and lines thoroughly memorized. 

5. Rehearsal of the play with special attention upon the proper interpreta- 
tion of the thought and emotion of the lines. 

6. Dress rehearsal. 

7. The production of the play on the date advertised. 

ASSIGNMENTS 

1. "What is meant by "coordinating thought with voice and action"! Give 
examples of coordination in activities other than speaking. 



78 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

2. What is the difference between speaking conversationally and unconver- 
sationally ? 

3. How does voice convey 

a. meaning, and 

b. emotion ? 

4. How does action convey thought and emotion? 

0. How do the Forms of Emphasis differ? 

6. What is "good posture, position and movement" before an audience? 

7. What is the purpose of gesture; what are the kinds of gestures, and 
what idea or feeling does each communicate? 

8. Should the reader, or the actor, impersonate? 

9. Define "interpretation", as an oral art. 

10. What is meant by "vicarious experience"? 

11. Which members of the class speak most conversationally, or least so? 

12. Note as you listen to speakers the relative influence that they have 
upon you according as they are conversational or unconversational. 

13. Let the class devote a few recitations to the reading of selections the 
purpose of which is conversational expression. 

14. Bead the following aloud, giving special attention to conveying meaning 
by the forms of emphasis. 

a. Great rats, small rats, lean rats, brawny rats, 
Brown rats, black rats, gray rats, tawny rats, 
Grave old plodders, gay young friskers, 

Fathers, mothers, uncles, cousins, 
Pointing tails and pricking whiskers, 

Families by tens and dozens, 
Brothers, sisters, husbands, wives — 
Followed the Piper for their lives. 

— Browning. 

b. Collecting, projecting, receding, and speeding, and shocking and rocking, 
and darting and parting, and threading and spreading, and whizzing and 
hissing, and dripping and skipping, and hitting and splitting, and shining and 
twining, and rattling and battling, and shaking and quaking, and pouring and 
roaring, and waving and raving, and tossing and crossing, and flowing and 
going, and running and stunning, and foaming and roaming, and dinning and 
spinning, and dropping and hopping, and working and jerking, and gurgling 
and struggling, and heaving and cleaving, and moaning and groaning. — 
Southey. 

15. Eead aloud the following 

Tone Quality Drills 

Welcome : 

1. How do you do, I am so glad to see you. Will you sit down? 

2. Come here, you darling little child! 



CO-ORDINATION 



79 



3. Oh, here you are. I have been expecting you for an hour. Come right in ! 
Gayety : 

1. Hurrah for the team, rah! rah! rah! rah! 

2. "Now glory to the Lord of Hosts from whom all glories are, 

And glory to our Sovereign Liege, King Henry of Navarre ! ' ' 

3. "I chatter, chatter as I flow to join the brimming river." 
Anger : 

1. If you say that again I will strike you. 

2. "How like a fawning publican he looks. 

I hate him for he is a Christian!" 

3. You must pay the penalty now! 
Grief: 

1. This is unbearable, how can I endure it! 

2. "I would my tongue could utter the thoughts that arise in me. ' ' 

3. My school chum and friend of many years passed away today. 
Reverence and Admiration: 

1. What a magnificent sight is Niagara Falls! 

2. "Oh beautiful, awful summer's day, 

What hast thou given, what taken away!" 

3. "Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll." 

16. Let the student form for himself Tone Quality Drills for practice in 
expressing the following moods and emotions. This list may be extended 
indefinitely. 1 



Hope 


Awe 


Excitement 


Parenthesis 


Fear 


Boldness 


Explanation 


Ridicule 


Disgust 


Confusion 


Encouragement 


Uproar 


Courage 


Contempt 


Geniality 


Warning 


Love 


Cunning 


Gloom 


Dissension 


Melancholy 


Condemnation 


Gasping 


Aspiration 


Remorse 


Command 


Horror 


Indignation 


Pity 


Challenge 


Hatred 


Irony 


Solemnity 


Calmness 


Indifference 


Sarcasm 


Defiance 


Despair 


Interrogation 


Woe 


Advice 


Determination 


Joy 


Agitation 


Affection 


Frankness 


Moaning 




Appeal 


Exultation 


Modesty 




17. Let the class read certain selections assigned by the instructor and dis- 



cuss the use of gesture in communicating the thought and emotion of the 
selections ; also, the kinds of gesture that may be used in this interpretation. 

18. Let the class discuss the subject of gesture in speaking, upon a basis 
somewhat as follows, — 

a. Is more or less gesture advisable as a rule? 

b. Do some persons gesture more than others? Why? 

c. What gestures do you use mostly? 

d. Are there gestures used by others that you particularly dislike? 

e. What is meant by "realism" in gesture? 



1 Compare with Tone Drills of A. E. Phillips ' Natural Drills in Expression. 




Chapter V 
ARTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION 

Definition. Oral language is made up of speech sounds ordi- 
narily called vowels and consonants. The basis of this classification 
is made upon the time element adjustment of vocal organs in 
making the sound. A vowel sound may be prolonged while a conso- 
nant must be uttered more or less instantaneously, because the 
sound of the consonant must be momentarily obstructed by the 
organs of articulation. Professor D. C. Miller defines vowels as, 
" speech sounds which can be continuously intoned, separated from 
the combinations and noises by which they are made into words. ' ' x 

Bell says, "The vowels are the material of speech and the artic- 
ulations (consonants) are the joints or hinges by whose motion 
the vowels are separated from each other and are affected in their 
duration." 2 

The consonants then may be thought of as obstructed sounds or 
noises and vowels as unobstructed, musical tones. 

Articulation refers to the joining distinctly of the proper speech 
sounds of a consonant and a vowel, or "a connected series of sounds 
made by the alternation of consonants and vowels. ' ' 3 Also artic- 
ulation is sometimes used as referring to sounding of consonants 
and enunciation to the sounding of vowels. 

Syllabication is the separating of words into syllables for the pur- 
pose of facilitating articulation. 

Accent is the stressing with the voice a particular syllable in 
a word. 

Correct pronunciation is the utterance of the speech sounds of a 
word with proper oral values, syllabication, and accent. 

Correct Pronunciation Desirable. In the earlier discussions of 
this hand-book the fact has been emphasized that we speak to 



i The Science of Musical Sounds, p. 217. 

2 Alexander M. Bell, Principles of Speech and Dictionary of Sounds, p. 14. 

3 Standard Dictionary. 

4Norlie, Principles of Expressive Beading, p. 175; footnote 71. 



80 



ARTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION 81 

convey ideas. Let this point receive additional emphasis here, for 
it bears relationship with articulation and pronunciation. If you 
are to convey an idea to an auditor by means of speech you must 
use symbols intelligible to him. In the main these symbols are 
words which are made up of vowel and consonant sounds. The giv- 
ing of a vowel the wrong oral value will often change the idea 
entirely. If, as is often the case, the vowel in the word "ten" is 
given the ''short i" sound, we get the word "tin", which is, of 
course, another word. But there are also pronunciations in which 
this same error does not give us a new word, such as when "men" 
is pronounced "min". In this case, the auditor is compelled to 
refer to the context to guess what the speaker refers to. Such 
extra effort on the part of the auditor mitigates against ease of 
attention and renders the speaker more difficult to listen to. The 
sounding of the speech elements of a word correctly is therefore 
a matter of efficiency in speech which is of value for the speaker, 
whether orator, conversationalist, salesman, etc. 

Again, incorrect articulation of consonants, especially final con- 
sonants, handicaps the listener and causes him to be obliged to 
appeal to the speaker's context to get the thought. If the "z" 
sound of the word "fears" is not given full quality another word 
results, i. e., "fierce". 

So that we may establish a principle of articulation and pro- 
nunciation of a dual nature; 

1. The speaker must know the speech sound of the word he 
utters. 

2. He must then be able to speak these sounds correctly. 
The ability to accomplish these two necessary features demands, 

a. A study of vowel and consonant qualities, and 

b. Drill or training in the utterance of these sounds singly 
and in word combinations. 

Furthermore, there is a strong demand to-day in the business 
world for correct articulation and pronunciation as an asset to one's 
personality. Not only are many of our large department stores 
in the cities giving attention to the speech of employees, but many 
firms who send out salesmen or other representatives of the "house" 
require a certain standard of excellence along this line. In the 
nation as a whole, there is a growing demand for a better enuncia- 
tion of the mother tongue. "Better Speech Weeks" and the Amer- 
ican Speech movement are indicative of this fact. 



82 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

Hearing Sounds: — Success in acquiring correctness of pronuncia- 
tion depends upon the ability to develop skill in hearing the sounds 
of vowels and consonants. It is necessary for us to build auditory 
images of each. When we hear a sound we relate it to our image. 
If our image is relatively right, we say the word is properly pro- 
nounced. In speaking we must hear the sounds somewhat as they 
are spoken and speak them so that they correspond with our images 
of correctness. We must develop the habit of hearing words in 
conversation and of judging of their proper articulation just as 
we develop the habit of seeing words upon the printed page and 
of recognizing their proper spelling. 

Standards of Pronunciation: — One of the first questions that 
comes to the student's mind refers to the lack of standard which 
seems to exist for authoritative pronunciation. Dictionaries as well 
as cultivated speakers do not pronounce alike. Speech sounds vary 
in different parts of the United States and what was acceptable 
yesterday, we find rejected to-day. We may well ask, "Can a 
standard be set among these many differences?" 

These differences in pronunciation are not so objectionable and 
radical as might seem apparent. Why are there so many pronun- 
ciations ? Why do the English speaking people not accept a definite 
sound for the vowel and consonant in every word and let the matter 
be closed ? There are four chief reasons why such a happy solution 
is not feasible. 

First. The speech organs of individuals are not alike, and never 
will be alike. Although the parts of the organs function similarly, 
anyone who has observed voices is aware that there is a widely 
divergent enunciation. With some individuals the vocal cords are 
heavy and long, with others thin and small. Larynges differ 
in size. Mouth cavities vary in shape considerably. Tongues 
are not alike. In some individuals teeth protrude and are large; 
in others they are small and well covered by the lips. From these 
varying organs of speech, then, we cannot expect exactly the same 
sound for each vowel or consonant. 

Second. Because of this fact and because people living in one 
part of the country tend to develop dialects or slight variations in 
the pronunciation of a language, we have what we call provincial- 
isms. We can recognize the far Western American by his speech 
when compared with the Southerner, or the Easterner. It is neither 
possible nor desirable to obliterate these oral traits. 






ARTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION 83 

Professor Krapp, of Columbia University, says, "Whether one 
thinks this should or should not be so, it is a fact that most culti- 
vated persons in America nowadays, and an increasing number in 
England, are more or less self-conscious about their speech. The 
present very general interest in the practical applications of the 
science of phonetics is one of the proofs of the truth of this state- 
ment. With our strange mingling of races, our widely separated 
but rapidly inter-communicating local units of population, our 
constantly shifting social boundaries between class and class, it is 
inevitable that, in America at least, such should be the case." 

America has welcomed to her shores the peoples of the world. 
There exist communities where English is not spoken to any marked 
degree ; especially in our large cities do we have little Italys, little 
Bohemias, little Polands, etc. One of the outstanding results, in 
America, of the great war has been an increased emphasis upon 
the Mother Tongue. One of the ways in which a greater unity 
can be given America lies through the use of English. This calls 
for a correct speech. To quote Professor Krapp again, "The uni- 
versal possession of all persons in the land, the rich and the poor, 
the learned and the unlearned, of farmer, artisan, laborer and 
merchant, speech is not only the great social solvent which makes 
the nation one, but also the readiest test by which such differences 
as exist are measured and known." Language is a living thing, 
expressive of our thoughts and emotions ; and it should not be held 
in too rigid a mould. 

Third. Language is in a state of constant change. The history 
of any language shows that it was related in some period closely 
to another language. The meanings of words and root forms dem- 
onstrate this. Words in changing from the Indo-European or in 
passing from one branch of this family to another have changed 
certain consonants. Grimm's Law, for instance, refers to such 
sounds <as the "p" of Greek and Latin that has become "f" in 
English. This change, of course, occurs over a wide range of years. 
Even English has changed, in the last few centuries. The English- 
man of Chaucer's day would find difficulty in understanding our 
pronunciation, nevertheless there is a fundamental similarity be- 
tween the pronunciation of our era and his. The standard is, 
therefore, constantly undergoing changes. But for any given period 
in the development of a language, the standard is termed "the 



84 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

actual usage ' '. The change which a language experiences is slight 
in periods of time separated only by a generation or two. The 
pronunciations of different locations are not so extreme as to make 
it difficult for the careful student of the spoken word to distinguish 
them, and to approximate a so-called accepted standard. This 
task of denning the " Actual Current Usage" is assumed by spe- 
cialists in the field of pronunciation and their work is utilized by 
the publishers of our dictionaries. 

But even the dictionaries do not agree among themselves, and 
later editions of the same dictionary accept pronunciations not 
listed in former editions : further evidence of the state of constant 
change in language. One should not, in fact cannot, be dogmatic 
about pronunciation any more than he can be about qualities of 
style, in written composition. However, one should not consider 
the status of pronunciation hopeless. It is quite possible for one to 
approximate a standard for himself. It need not comply in every 
detail with the standards of every other person, except in the main 
with those in the locality where one receives his early training and 
education, provided, of course, that such a standard is in keeping 
with the better traditions of pronunciation of English. There are 
two extremes possible in pronunciation, both of which a satis- 
factory standard should avoid. One is gross mispronunciation, such 
as substituting for a vowel or consonant sound one that the letter 
or letters could not possibly have ; for instance, pronouncing "men" 
as "min", or putting in sounds traditionally not belonging to the 
word, such as "warsh" for "wash"; or. leaving out syllables tradi- 
tionally included in the words, such as "speakin' " for "speaking", 
and "gover'mut" for "government". The other is overniceness 
where the speaker goes to the other extreme in trying to give the 
proper quality to vowels especially, such as "awsk" for "ask", etc. 
Slight variations in the sounding of vowel qualities are to be ex- 
pected because of the great variety of voice resonance chambers 
people possess. If you are a scholar in phonetics, its history and 
development, you can build your own standard upon the basis of 
your knowledge. Otherwise, it is safer and more advisable to 
follow what is rather widely accepted as the work of scholars, the 
dictionary. Own a copy of some standard dictionary, and follow 
it, except where you can justify before scholars your departure. 

There is a charm to the trained ear in listening to the melody of 



ARTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION 85 

the speech of one who gives the proper sounds and accents to his 
words ; and once this habit of listening to and distinguishing between 
speech values has been cultivated, incorrect pronunciation, will be 
assigned to a place among other vulgarisms. 

The readiest way to develop accuracy in pronunciation is to 
develop the "dictionary habit". Learn at least one acceptable 
pronunciation. Where two or three pronunciations are permissi- 
ble, the student should select the one to him most desirable and 
easy to remember, unless he can keep the others in mind. The 
proper pronunciation of English is a habit worthy of cultivation : 
it is a cultural duty. If difficulty is experienced retaining pronun- 
ciation, a "pronunciation book" should be kept and the difficult 
words correctly recorded therein. To overome habits of mispronun- 
ciation, many have found the custom of pronouncing a word aloud 
correctly five times to be a valuable aid in developing accuracy: 
by this exercise the correct auditory image of the word's sound is 
intensified. 

Dual Pronunciation Problem: — The subject of pronunciation may 
be summarized as a problem of two factors. First, it is a subjective 
problem ; a problem for the mind of the individual. He must de- 
velop a knowledge of the correct pronunciation from all sources 
available. This knowledge must be augmented by a definite mental 
image of the sound, auditory in nature. He must hear it pro- 
nounced by his own voice. An individual must develop a standard 
of pronunciation for himself based upon good authority; he must 
then develop habits of distinct articulation so as to be heard and 
understood by the auditor. Secondly : there is an objective feature 
to the problem. Not only must an individual be aware of the pro- 
nunciation for himself, but he must think of how the pronunciation 
will sound to one hearing him. Will the auditor's ear get the 
same sound? Are the auditor's images of pronunciation similar 
or identical to the speaker's own? We must avoid peculiar pro- 
nunciations for the sake of the auditor to whom they may not be 
familiar. 

VOWEL SOUNDS 

Vowel Formations — Vowel sound formation is a matter of reso- 
nance. The oral chambers are shaped differently for each of the 
so-called vowels. Reference to figures 1, 2, 3, from Webster will 

7 



86 



PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 



make the point clearer. Vowels are formed in three extreme reso- 
nances. In the sound of "e" as in "meet" the chief resonance 
is centered about the front part of the mouth just back of the teeth. 
In the sountd of "oo" as in "roof" the lips are rounded, the back 
part of the tongue thrust forward, and the throat in the region of 
the pharynx enlarged. For the sound of "ah" as in "father" the 
lower jaw must be dropped, the tongue relaxed on the floor of the 
mouth, and the throat opened moderately. All vowels occur in 
positions related to these three, main resonances. 

Sigh, eve. Low, cfixe. i A Narrow, 




VIEWS OF THE VOCAL ORGANS (THE RIGHT HALF) IN VOWEL 
RESONANCE POSITIONS 
The positions are somewhat exaggerated. 
From Webster 
1 Hard Palate. 2 Soft Palate. 3-4 Back Wall of the Pharynx. 5 Tongue. 
6 Tongue, or Hyoid Bone. 7 Right Vocal Cord, below; right False Vocal Cord, 
above; both attached to the Thyroid Cartilage in front, and to the right 
Arytenoid Cartilage behind. 8 Fold, extended from the border of the right 
half of the Epiglottis in front to the right Arytenoid Cartilage behind; back 
of which is shown, in cross section, the Transverse Muscle that runs from the 
right to the left Arytenoid. 9 Cricoid Cartilage. 10 Windpipe. 11 Esoph- 
agus. C Place of Constriction. 



ARTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION 



87 



The following are the cardinal vowel positions according to Web- 
ster 's International Dictionary: 



THE CARDINAL VOWEL RESONANCE POSITIONS 



High 



Medium 



Low 





Front 


Mixed 


Back 


Narrow 


e 


eve 




oo food 


Wide 


i 


will 




oo foot 


Narrow 


a 


ale 


e fern 


o old 


Wide 


e 


men 


u up 


a art 


Wide 


a 


care 


u turn 


6 orb 


Narrow 


a 


man 




6 not 



Long and Short Vowel Sounds. The marking system of the 
vowel sounds differ in some instances as to long and short sounds. 
The Webster Dictionary considers the dipthong long a, as in the 
word ate. On the other hand, the " scientific marking" of the 
Standard Dictionary assumes the right attitude in rating the vowels 
as long and short which actually possesses the longer or shorter 
sounds. The following table will set forth the preferable align- 
ment of short and long sounds: 

LONG AND SHORT VOWEL SOUNDS 

(According to the Standard Dictionary, Scientific Alphabet. See Vizetelly, 
Essentials of English Speech and Literature, Chap. 9.) 





Correct 




Erroneous 


Short 


Long 


Short 


Long 


a — artistic 


a — art 


a — at 


■ — ale 


a — at 


a — air 


o — met 


e — eve 


e — met 


e — prey 


i— it 


i — ice 


i— it 


i — marine 


o — not 


o — note 


o — poetic 


o — note 


u — put 


u — mute 


o — not 


o — nor 






u — put 


u — mood 






u — up 


u — urge 







CONSONANTS 

Consonants may be either subtonic or atonic; that is, the sound 
of the consonant may be voiced or it may not be voiced. When the 
sound is voiced, the vocal cords are brought into full vibration; 



88 



PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 



when aspirate or not voiced, the cords vibrate but little if any. 
The distinction is readily perceived if the fingers are placed against 
the larynx (touching the. Adam's Apple) : sound "t", then sound 
"d". Note the vibration of the larynx on the voiced sound. 

As to formation, consonants may be labials, Unguals, or palatals, 
according to articulatory organ which functions greatest. If the 
lips function chiefly in the creation of the sound, it is termed 
labial; if the tongne, lingual; if the palate, palatal. 

Two consonants are said to be cognates when they are similarly 
formed but when one is voiced (subtonic), and the other is not 
voiced (atonic). The following table sets forth the relationship 
of the consonants. 

A nasal results when all the vocalized breath is passed through 
the nose. 

TABLE OF CONSONANTS 



LABIALS 



Vocals or Subtonics Aspirates or Atonies Nasals 
B — bub P — pump M — man 

V— vivid F— fife 

W— wide HW— what 





E — ride 


R — press 




L— like 


L — flame 




D— did 


T — titanic 


LLNGUALS 


J — jam 


CH — ehime 




Z — zone 


S— so 




TH— then 


TH— thin 




ZH — azure 


SH — shine 




G— gag 


K— kick 


PALATALS 


Y— yet 


HY — human 
H — how 



N — nun 



NG — rang 



STEPS IN ACQUIRING CORRECT ENUNCIATION 
AND ARTICULATION 



39. CONSTRUCT A CORRECT AUDITORY IMAGE OF EACH VOWEL. 

In order to develop the images of how vowels sound, they must 
be isolated one from the other and the resonance value of each 
determined and practiced. In the following table, Numerical List 
of Vowels, each vowel has been numbered, according to its sound. 



ARTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION 



89 



This table does not inelude the ''half -long" sounds cited in Web- 
ster's International Dictionary. It is a table generally accepted 
by all students of vowel sounds as adequate for preliminary train- 
ing. Let the student sound each vowel alone, without any relation 
to other sounds, noting the position of the oral resonance chamber, 
the shape of the tongue, the distance between the teeth and the 
contour of the lips. For help, refer to diagrams, Figures 1, 2, 3. 
The sound of each vowel should be determined, not by the student 
alone, but by the student in conference with the instructor. If 
allowed to determine the sound alone, the student is apt to con- 
tinue in any habits of incorrectness he may possess; these may be 
discovered if the auditory images are developed under the super- 
vision of competent instruction. 

"What shall be the student's attitude toward provincial enuncia- 
tion and articulation? Shall he be allowed to retain his sound of 
"r" if he pronounces the word "idea-r"? or, if he pronounces the 
word "doubt" as "doot", shall he be corrected? But one answer 
can be given : provincialisms must be discarded, just as provincial- 
isms of grammar must be cast aside. Correctness should be the 
ideal of attainment; for at best, there will be still considerable 
variation of pronunciation due to the variations that exist in the 
speech organs of individuals. 



BELL'S NUMERICAL LIST OF VOWELS 

Slightly adapted 

(See Principles of Speech) 

Vowel No. Vowel Practice Words 

1 e as in educe, expedient, bee. 

2 i as in impose, differ, verily. 

3 a as in mediate, ague, gay. 

4 short e as in embrace, embers, end. 
4x (long) a as in erewhile, vary, fair. 

5 a as in admire, admiral, act. 

6 a as in arouse, sofa, bath. 

7 a as in partake, pardon, papa. 
7+1 i as in idea, mindful, sky. 
7+13 ou as in however, doubtful, how. 

8 i as in herbaceous, marti/r, sir. 

9 (short) u as in supply, cwdgel, cwt. 

9x (long) u as in ewrtail, curtain, hurt. 
10 (short) o as in obtain, dogma, on. 



90 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

10+1 oi as in envoy, boil, hoy. ♦ 

11 o as in portray, afford, pour. 

12 o as in omit, motion, slow. 

13 (short) oo as in together, footman, should. 
13x (long) oo as in isswe, rwthless, ooze. 

Isolate the Vowel Sounds of Words by Numbering Them. The 
next step for the student is the numbering of the sounds of vowels 
in words. Choose any passage from the selections listed in the 
back part of the book, numbering the vowel sounds after a pre- 
liminary exercise in numbering the sounds of the following passage. 

"In oral reading the chief additional ele- 
ment to be measured, besides speed and com- 
prehension, is the correctness of the pro- 
nunciation. " — Starch, Educational Psychology. 

Practice Identical Vowel Sounds in Word Lists. In the next 
place, let the student train for accuracy of sound in word combina- 
tions. Refer, for instance, to the Numerical List of Vowels; in 
the right hand column are words illustrating the sounds of the 
different vowels. Repeat aloud these series, stressing the sound 
in italics. 

Consonants 

40. DEVELOP THE CORRECT AUDITORY IMAGE FOR EACH CON- 
SONANT. 

There is a wide range of consonant spelling combinations. These, 
however, may all be reduced satisfactorily for purposes of study 
to the sounds of the following table. 

BELL'S NUMERICAL LIST OF CONSONANTS 

21 Tc as in can, kill, account, character, neck, hough, lake, khan, lacquer, 

pique, Bacchic, quay, acquire, walk. 

22 g as in leg, egg, ghost, plague, blackguard. 

23 ng as in ink, handkerchief, song, tongue. 

24 h as in hue. 

25 e, i, j, u, y, as in few, duteous, osier, hallelujah, use, you, million. 

26 sh as in ocean, tension, nation, chaise, conscience, shape, omission, schedule, 

pshaw. 

27 j as in giraffe, rouge, leisure, abscission, transition, azure, jambeaux. 

28 r as in horrible. 

29 r as in race, rhubarb, mirror, myrrhine. 

30 I as in late, tale, all, kiln, island, thistle, seraglio. 



ARTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION 91 

31 t as in at, late, thyme, cottage, debtor, indictment, yacht, ptarmigan, sight, 

phthisis, stopped. 

32 d as in bad, bade, add, bdellium, Buddhism, would. 

33 n as in dun, done, inn, Wednesday, sign, John, mnemonics, puisne, demesne, 

compter. 

34 s as in cell, ace, gas, scent, base, loss, psalm, britzska. 

35 z as in sacrifice (v.), Czarina, as, ease, discern, dishonor, scissors, zeal, 

biaze, buzz, Windsor, xystus. 

36 th as in eighth, thing, Matthew, apophthegm. 

37 th as in the, this, breathe. 

38 f as in leaf, safe, stiff, laugh, physique, sapphire, soften, half. 

39 v as in vain, save, of, nephew, rendezvous. 

40 wh as in what. 

41 w as in way, one, quick, persuade. 

42 p as in pay, tape, tippet, ophthalmia, hiccough, halfpenny. 

43 b as in crab, glebe, ebb, cupboard. 

44 m as in aim, lamb, same, common, condemn, drachm, paradigm, palm, 

disme. 

(Combination Consonants) 
21-14 h as in ox, accept, axe, except, stomachs, works, wrecks, barques. 
22-15 gs as in exalt, legs, eggs. 
31-6 tch as in chair, watch, vermicelli. 
31-7 dj as in soldier, judgment, judge, gem, range, exaggerate, jay, sandwich. 

Isolate the Consonants by Numbering Them. Refer back to Prin- 
ciple No. 38. Number also the consonantal combinations of the 
passage there cited. Follow this by numbering the consonants in 
any passage taken from a selection in the back part of the book. 

Practice the Consonant Sounds. There are many charts availa- 
ble of consonant groupings for drill. The instructor should furnish 
the class with a discussion of these. Or, the class may construct a 
drill chart of consonants for itself by (a) Arranging consonant 
sounds in groups so that each sound is repeated in succession four 
times; (b) Arranging word columns with four words for each 
sound. 

Apply the Skill Acquired by the Foregoing Steps in Oral Read- 
ing. This final step should provide a synthesis of the foregoing 
steps. Preferably selections for reading should be chosen at first 
on which attention may be given to sound alone; the thought con- 
tent need be little more than nonsense. For this purpose, sentences 
of difficult sound combinations are often furnished. Such sen- 
tences (Peter Prangle, etc., It sufficeth us, etc.) permit of good 
drill; but they should be used for drill only, as such difficult and 



92 



PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 



odd combinations seldom appear in regular reading matter. In no 
case should the reading of such sentences end the training for 
correct articulation and enunciation. 

Lastly, the student should take up the reading of material in 
which the thought is important and train to coordinate correct 
articulation and pronunciation with the other media of expression 
as he tries to communicate effectively the thought of the author. 



Methods for Attaining Correct Pronunciation 

1. Practice for mastery the vowel sounds in word columns. 

2. Practice for mastery the pronunciation of columns of words possessing 
difficult final combinations. 

3. Practice for mastery the pronunciation of columns of words possessing 
many syllables and difficult of articulation. 

4. Practice phonetic spelling. 

5. Consult the Dictionary always when in doubt. 

6. Develop the habit of observing the pronunciation of cultivated people, 
trained public speakers, actors and dramatic readers. 

Exercises in Articulation 

Correct and elegant pronunciation can be acquired only by faithful practice. 
The following exercises or similar exercises should be practiced often, daily if 
possible. Pronounce the words aloud, then in whisper; spell them phonetically 
and practice with them the inflection of pitch, force and time. 



1 


eve 


sweet 


feel 


clique 


seek 




feet 


heed 


week 


weep 


chic 




meet 


theme 


deep 


keep 


queen 


2 


ill 


din 


lip 


bid 


hid 




fill 


pin 


sit 


did 


will 




sill 


whim 


quit 


quid 


mill 


3 


ale 


whale 


fete 


day 


same 




hale 


rate 


ace 


pay 


eight 




mail 


mate 


pace 


came 


late 


4 


men 


send 


steady 


measure 


genuine 




pen 


friends 


elk 


pleasure 


bell 




end 


ready 


hence 


general 


den 


5 


care 


hair 


pair 


parent 


stair 




bare 


lair 


prepare 


air 


dare 




fair 


aware 


chair 


rare 


declare 


6 


man 


had 


carriage 


passion 


arid 




can 


marry 


caricature 


romance 


barbaric 




catch 


harass 


aquatic 


gamut 


character 



ARTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION 



93 



7 wp 


fern 


ever 


wrge 


colonel 


cut 


dirge 


girl 


worm 


attorney 


hum 


verge 


first 


oppress 


official 


final 


seven 


utter 


connect 


murmwr 


financial 


gavel 


butter 


possess 


jowrnal 


8. not 


forest 


wash 


foreign 


office 


hot 


torrid 


swan 


forehead 


orator 


was 


oratory 


morrow 


morals 


box 


9 orb 


almost 


bald 


daughter 


awful 


or 


broad 


balk 


falchion 


laureate 


all 


fought 


because 


water 


quarter 


10 art 


gaunt 


suave 


calf 


promenade 


aunt 


launch 


salve 


laugh 


Alabama 


calm 


taunt 


commandant 


daunt 


Nevada 


ask 


chant 


after 


advance 


pastor 


task 


class 


command 


grass 


pastime 


staff 


quaff 


advantage 


mast 


taskmaster 


11 old 


hose 


court 


corporeal 


opponent 


cold 


foam 


hope 


history 


four 


bold 


coke 


corps 


toward 


zoology 


12 foot 


wolf 


stood 


full 


could 


look 


brook 


pull 


butcher 


would 


book 


good 


push 


bullion 


should 


13 food 


moon 


truce 


prune 


rural 


root 


croup 


brute 


true 


smooth 


room 


rule 


gruel 


ooze 


ruin 



Difficult Final Combinations i 
Note: Articulate each consonant, then pronounce the word. 



Id — bold, hailed, tolled 
If — elf, wolf, gulf, sylph 
Ik — milk, silk, bulk, hulk 
lm — elm, helm, whelm, film 
lp — help, gulp, alp, scalp 
Is — falls, tells, toils, halls 
It— fault, melt, bolt, hilt 
lve — elve, delve, revolve 
md — maim'd, claim 'd, gloom 'd 
ms — streams, gleams, climes 
nd — land, band, and, hand 
ns — dens, runs, gains, gleans 



nk — bank, dank, sank, link 
nee — dance, glance, hence 
nt — ant, want, gaunt, point 
sm — chasm, schism, prism 
sp — asp, clasp, grasp 
st — vast, mast, lest 
ct — act, fact, reject 
pn — op'n, rip'n, weap'n 
kn — tak'n, wak'n, tok'n 
tn — bright 'n, tight 'n, whit 'n 
ble — able, Bible, double 
pie — ample, triple, topple 



1 From Cumnock's Choice Headings. 



94 



PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 



bl'd— troubl'd, bubbl'd, doubl'd 
dl'd— cradl'd, saddl'd, idl'd 
1st— call 'st, heal'st, till'st 
nst — canst, runn 'st, gain 'st 
dst — midst, call'dst, roll'dst 



rdst — heard 'st, guard 'st, reward 'st 
ngdst — wrong 'dst, throng 'dst 
rmdst — arm 'dst, form 'dst 
rndst — learn 'dst, scorn 'dst 



Words op Many Syllables* 
Note: Articulate each syllable carefully. 



revolution 

institution 

lugubrious 

necessarily 

generally 

abominably 

absolutely 

accessory 

accurately 

agitated 

dishonorable 

collaterally 

apologetic 

dietetically 



apocalyptic 

coagulation 

antipathy 

apocrypha 

affability 

chronological 

assimilate 

acquiescence ' 

momentarily 

ambiguously 

atmospherical 

allegorical 

inexplicable 

constitution 



lucubration 

colloquially 

ecclesiastically 

authoritatively 

superiority 

incalculable 

indisputable 

immediately 

justificatory 

multiplication 

articulately 

disinterestedly 

adequately 

angularly 



innumerable 

intolerable 

annihilate 

apostatize 

appropriate 

indissolubly 

temporarily 

mythological 

congratulatory 

circumlocution 

disingenuousness 



Selections for Phonetic Spelling 



Amidst the mists and coldest frosts, 
With stoutest wrists and loudest boasts, 
He thrust his fists against the posts 
And still insists he sees the ghosts. 

Amos Ames, the amiable aeronaut, aided in an aerial enterprise at the age 
of eighty-eight. 

Some shun sunshine. Do you shun sunshine? 

And the sun shall shine sooner or later. 

Fine white wine vinegar with veal. 

The honorable and reverend gentlemen. 

Bring a bit of buttered brown bran bread. 

Six thick thistle sticks. 

Lucy likes light literature. 

Eight gray geese in a green field grazing. 

It sufficeth us. Miserable interrogatory. 

She sells sea-shells. Shall Susan sell sea-shells? 

He sawed six, long, slim, sleek, slender saplings. 

Suddenly seaward swept the squall. 

He saw an old man roll railroad iron. 

Would 'st not play false and yet would 'st wrongly win. 

Kich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind. 



*Compare with a similar list in Cumnock 's (Jhoice Headings. 



AKTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION 



95 



I fancy the first Frenchman fenced furiously. 

That whim led White Whitney to whittle, whistle, whisper, and whimper, 
near the wharf where a floundering whale might wheel and whirl. 

Swan swam over the sea. Swan swam back again. Well swam, swan. 

Sweet is the capture when the captive finds the captor a captive too. 

Zedikiah Zigzag was a zealous zoological zoophite in the frozen zone. 

Peter Prangle, the prickly prangly pear picker, picked three pecks of prickly 
prangly pears from the prickly prangly pear trees on the pleasant prairies. 

Theophilus Thistle, the successful thistle sifter, in sifting a sieve full of 
unsifted thistles, thrust three thousand thistles through the thick of his thumb; 
now if Theophilus Thistle, the successful thistle sifter, in sifting a sieve full 
of unsifted thistles, thrust three thousand thistles through the thick of his 
thumb, see that thou, in sifting a sieve full of unsifted thistles, thrust not 
three thousand thistles through the thick of thy thumb. Success to the success- 
ful thistle sifter! 

Words Frequently Mispronounced 

A word is marked correctly for pronunciation only when it is respelled and 
when 

a. All the vowels are marked, or numbered to signify definite sounds, 

b. The ambiguous consonants are marked, 

c. The primary accent is marked, and 

d. The word is separated into syllables. 

The student will find it a helpful practice for developing a sense for "good 
pronunciation ' ' to pronounce aloud from one to five of the following groups of 
words a day. When in doubt as to the better pronunciation, he should refer 
to an acceptable dictionary, or other authority. 

Note: For class drill in pronunciation, let the instructor assign a group of ten words 
to each member of the class in such a manner that all the words shall have been given 
out, during the period of the course devoted to pronunciation study. Let the instructor, 
then, take up in class from one to rive groups of words a recitation, getting the preferred 
pronunciations from the student or students to whom the words were assigned. Supple- 
menting this study should be drill; let the class pronounce aloud, quietly but specifically, 
five groups of words each recitation after the preferred pronunciation has been selected. 
When the entire list has been covered, repeat the drill until the acceptable pronunciations 
are fixed. If the instructor so desires, append additional words to the following list, 
words selected by the class, omitting such groups of the following as seems to best meet 
the needs of the recitation. It will be found that the student will profit greatly by being 
assigned at least fifty (and not more than a hundred) words to be marked "correctly for 
pronunciation". 



1. aeroplane 


2. ally 


3. Acacia 


4. adobe 


arbitrament 


abattoir 


acclimate 


aeronaut 


acumen 


adept 


aerial 


again 


assiduity 


agape 


albumen 


alchemy 


attache 


atelier 


aspirant 


alien 


avoirdupois 


apparatus 


amenable 


alumni 


arid 


abdomen 


abjectly 


amoeba 


accouter 


acephalous 


acme 


aggrandize 


acoustics 


address (v) 


actor 


agrarian 


adagio 


address (n) 


area 


ague 



96 



PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 



5. advertisement 6. 


aeon 


7. animalcule 


8. arbutus 


aesthetics 


aforesaid 


ant 


archeology 


aid-de-camp 


aisle 


antipodes 


archangel 


alias 


alibi 


antique 


archbishop 


alma mater 


altercate 


any 


architect 


alumnae 


amateur 


aperture 


archipelago 


aquatic 


ameliorate 


aphorism 


archives 


allopathic 


anaemia 


apostle 


arctic 


almond 


anarchist 


aqueous 


aria 


alms 


angel 


arabesque 


aroma 


9. arsenic 10. 


atavism 


11. auxiliary 


12. a la mode 


artesian 


ate 


awry 


athletic 


artificer 


athlete 


aye (yes) 


Arabic 


artisan 


attacked 


aye (always) 


assiduous 


asbestos 


attribute (n) 


adjudicator 


automobile 


ask 


attribute (v) 


admirable 


aviation 


asked 


aunt 


ad valorem 


absent (v & n) 


asphalt 


audacious 


adverse 


allege 


assignee 


august (a) 


aerie 


amour 


asthma 


autopsy 


a la carte 


advance 


13. acquiesce 14. 


apparent 


15. banquet 


16. bade 


associate 


aviation 


barbarian 


business 


abject 


azure 


because 


breeches 


adult 


audacious 


bicycle 


bravo 


aggrandizement 


biography 


boisterous 


belles-lettres 


accurate 


blackguard 


bronchitis 


bellows 


annihilate 


buffet 


bizarre 


bestial 


allegiance 


bas-relief 


blessed 


brevet 


acrostic 


bouillon 


believe 


brooch 


alternate 


bureaucracy 


bona fide 


bouquet 


17. coquet 18. 


courtesy 


19. civilization 


20. dahlia 


concentrate 


corps 


clique 


deprivation 


chasten 


corpse 


creek 


depths 


ceramic 


courtiers 


canon 


dog 


chastisement 


candidate 


clematis 


desultory 


chiffonier 


chauffeur 


combatant 


diphtheria 


chivalrous 


column 


casualty 


despicable 


coadjutor 


comparable 


chalet 


dyspepsia 


connoisseur 


comptroller 


coiffure 


diamond 


contumely 


conduit 


chic 


decade 



ARTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION 



97 



21. decayed 


22. economics 


23. exquisite 


24. fiancee 


dilemma 


either 


expert 


film 


docile 


ennui 


envelope (v & 


n) folio 


demonstrate 


extol 


endive 


fete 


demure 


eczema 


epoch 


fetish 


deaf 


extant 


exit 


fiery 


device 


eclat 


equipage 


fatigue 


devise 


entree 


evening 


finale 


different 


epitome 


extraordinary 


falcon 


demur 


ermine 


encore 


finance 


25. forehead 


26. gala 


27. homogeneity 


28. illustrate 


filial 


genealogy 


horizon 


imbecile 


formidable 


glacier 


hypocrisy 


irate 


frontier 


geyser 


heinous 


infantile 


gallows 


guardian 


harass 


isthmus 


gratis 


hilarity 


hiccough 


interesting 


guarantee 


hydrangea 


homage 


insidious 


government 


handkerchief 


hoof 


inertia 


ghoul 


hospitable 


history 


idea 


gubernatorial 


heaven 


hypocrisy 


ignoble 


29. impious 


30. juvenal 


31. lava 


32. mezzo 


incognito 


javelin 


legend 


menu 


increment 


jocund 


leisure 


madame 


indissoluble 


judicature 


licorice 


majolica 


inquiry- 


khaki 


loath 


mardi gras 


insatiable 


kiln 


luxury 


marquis 


irony 


larynx 


lien 


massacre 


irrefutable 


laugh 


lenient 


mausoleum 


irrevocable 


lever 


lyonnaise 


memoir 


isolate 


literature 


lowering 


mercantile 


33. misanthrope 


34. naive 


35. orthoepy 


36. paraffin 


mischievous 


nuptial 


onyx 


parent 


mirage 


new 


only 


pageant 


museum 


nonchalant 


oath 


predecessor 


miniature 


nausea 


orchid 


pretense 


moral 


neuralgia 


occult 


porcelain 


morale 


negligee 


opponent 


presumptuous 


massage 


orchestral 


overt 


personal 


muskmelon 


oleomargarine 


oracle 


personnel 


manor 


often 


ocean 


portiere 



PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 



37. palmistry 


38. prelude 


39. prima facie 40. 


rabbi 


pecuniary 


program 


pumpkin 


reptile 


perfect (n & 


v) perspiration 


patriotism 


rout 


pianist 


pretty 


preface 


renunciation 


piquant 


patron 


presentiment 


rhythm 


placable 


patronage 


psalm 


recall 


placard 


precocity 


quinine 


research 


poignant 


protege 


qui vive 


romance 


prairie 


probity 


quickening 


really 


precedent (a 


& n) protestation 


query 


regime 


41. renaissance 


42. servile 


43. sagacious 44. 


sacrilegious 


rendezvous 


subpoena 


sergeant 


scion 


repartee 


soldier 


slough (mire) 


silhouette 


rise 


subtle 


solace 


squalid 


resources 


ski 


soot 


sinecure 


reveille 


suave 


squalor 


technique 


restaurant 


seckel 


sovereign 


tepid 


rheum 


sedan 


statistics 


trousseau 


recluse 


semester 


status 


tomato 


reconnoiter 


sacrifice (n & v) suite 


thyme 


45. theatre 


46. verbatim 


47. Arab 48. 


Bach 


trio 


vehemence 


Arkansas 


Beethoven 


tyrannical 


viscount 


Ave Maria 


Celt 


urbane 


vivacious 


Aeneid 


Chopin 


valet 


viva voce 


Alsace-Lorraine 


Calliope 


vase 


wash 


Amiens 


Caribbean 


viscount 


was 


Armada 


Corot 


version 


with 


Aryan 


Correggio 


viril 


wreath 


Aida 


Cavalleria 


vaudeville 


wistaria 


Buenos Aires 


Eusticana 


49. Don Juan 


50. Galileo 


51. Millet 52. 


Paderewski 


Dvorak 


Gloucester 


Mozart 


Renaissance 


Don Quixote 


Goethe 


Michael Angelo 


Rigoletto 


Des Moines 


Haydn 


Mont Blanc 


Roosevelt 


Elizabethan 


Hawaii 


Magna Charta 


Sahara 


Faneuil 


Himalaya 


Notre Dame 


Saint Louis 


Favorita 


1 Illinois 


Nevada 


Schubert 


Gallic 


Iowa 


New Orleans 


Tannhauser 


Gounod 


Italian 


Niagara 


Thais 


Joffre 


Los Angeles 


New Foundland 


Trovatore 



ARTICULATION AND PRONUNCIATION 99 

ASSIGNMENTS 

1. What are the speech sounds of language called? 

2. Define articulation and enunciation. 

3. What is a satisfactory Standard of Pronunciation? What has been 
the basis of your own standard, up to the present time? 

4. What is the "dual pronunciation problem"? 

5. Keep a pronunciation book in which you record the pronunciation of 
words you wish to remember. Go over the words of this book once a week, 
pronouncing them aloud. 

To the instructor: The subject of pronunciation is much overlooked in our 
educational system, possibly unnecessarily so. At least, the writer believes it 
demands a prominent place in any introductory course in speaking. It is 
hoped that ample material has been presented in the foregoing chapter for 
thorough drill in this subject and that the presentation has been neither 
pedantic, arbitrary nor superficial. 



Chapter VI 

THE SPEECH INSTRUMENT 

The human voice is an instrument, — an instrument capable of 
communicating thought and the subtlest emotions. Slightest 
changes of pitch, inflection, or force convey meanings no musical 
instrument ever devised can equal. Whether it be the voice of the 
orator in impassioned appeal to the crowd or the humming melody 
of the mother lulling her baby to repose, it has power to express 
the gamut of thought and feeling, to bring pleasure, to inspire 
confidence, to convince and to move to action the minds of men. 
The facts of the science of voice can be learned in a relatively brief 
period of time, but the art of the use of the voice comes only after 
prolonged and patient training. Training of the vocal organs alone 
will not give power to the speaking voice, unless this training 
is combined with mental and spiritual development. Wealth of 
emotional experience and thought, maturity of mind and reflection, 
must be its associates. 

IMPROVE THE VOICE BY TRAINING 

The voices of individuals vary greatly. There are speaking 
voices of high pitch, of low pitch, narrow and wide range of pitch, 
of weak and strong intensity, of pleasant and unpleasant quality 
or melody. The voices of some will yield to training more; of 
others, less. None by taking thought or by training can improve 
the voice beyond its organic limitations any more than can a mature 
individual of short stature by exercise enlarge his proportions to 
those of a giant. But nature has provided no normal individual 
with a voice which cannot be improved by training. 

Let the class occupy a portion of a recitation in discussing the 
speaking voice along lines somewhat suggested by the following 
queries : 

a. Have you observed the wide range of variety among speaking 
voices ? Is there any evidence of variety in the voices of the class 
as they respond to roll call? 

100 



THE SPEECH INSTRUMENT 101 

b. Is the fact of variety a handicap to anyone ? 

c. Is a good speaking voice a necessity ? It it an element of per- 
sonality to be desired? Why? 

d. What is a good speaking voice? 

e. Of the members of the class who possess what to your mind are 
the best speaking voices, how many have had training either in 
speech or song? Of those whose voices are poorest, in your judg- 
?nent, how many have trained ? Does there seem to be any relation- 
ship between the good voices you have observed in class, or outside 
of class, and training? 

f. Can you classify your own voice? Do you think training 
would improve it? 

g. List the defects of your own voice or that of a member of the 
class : can you suggest how to remove the defects ? 

h. Is the removal of all defects possible ? Desirable ? Is there a 
perfect voice? 

i. Can you think of a person of your acquaintance whose voice 
has been improved by training? Whose voice has not been im- 
proved by training? Did the ability of the instructor have any- 
thing to do with this? 

j. Do all good singers possess good speaking voices? Do good 
speaking voices possess merit in song? Is there a difference be- 
tween the speaking voice and the singing voice? 

k. To what extent is a knowledge of the science of voice produc- 
tion necessary in training? To what extent desirable? 

KNOWLEDGE THE BASIS OF SPEECH TRAINING 

41. UNDERSTAND THE PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING. 

In the foregoing discussions we have considered the desirability 
of knowledge in connection with training. Compare the outcome 
of your discussion in class on the subject with the following asser- 
tions. In order that we may enjoy a meal at the dinner table, it is 
not necessary that we possess the full knowledge of all the processes 
that go on in the assimilation of the food in the body, and we do 
not need to know the principles of physiology. Nevertheless, if the 
slightest disorder arises in the digestive system, or if there are ingre- 
dients in the food that bring about illness, we are unable satisfac- 
torily to diagnose our ailment. Then it becomes necessary to invite 

8 



102 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

a specialist, one who not only knows the human organism, but the 
functions of the various organs. We summon a physician, one who 
possesses such knowledge. In order that a student may be a 
successful football player, it is not necessary that he understand 
how all the muscles of the body act and react, nor just how to take 
care of himself in case he is injured in a game. Instructors, train- 
ers 'are provided for such purposes. Yet in the days of earlier 
football, when it was not possible to have such skilled attendants 
in the great game, the players were obliged to understand more 
how to take care of their injuries. Now, the trainer takes the re- 
sponsibility of all these details. In speech training, it is not abso- 
lutely necessary for the student to understand very much about 
the principles of voice production; he may follow the suggestion 
m'ade by his instructor and improve quite satisfactorily without 
much attention to the subject of anatomy or the physiology of the 
organs ; but the instructor must be a specialist in this field of infor- 
mation ; he must have a knowledge of the organs of speech and of 
how they function that he may be able to give you correct and 
adequate training. But the student of speech is unlike the athlete 
on the football team ; throughout life he will not have a competent 
instructor under whom he is working at all times. Many of the 
great singers carry with them physicians who give correct advice in 
how to use the voice and when not to use it. The student, however, 
will, to a very large degree, have to become his own physician, his 
own trainer, his own instructor. In all the ordinary walks of life, 
speech is a secondary consideration to the thought content to be 
communicated. The student will find it highly profitable, therefore, 
to know the fundamental principles underlying the science of voice 
production in order that he may be his own adviser ; and when in 
doubt, it will not be necessary for him to consult a specialist, ex- 
cept in case of serious difficulty. He can to a great degree deter- 
mine what his ailments may be and how best to remove the defects. 
Furthermore, the organism producing voice works upon a rather 
mechanical basis, and the student will be able to speak more ef- 
fectively, to make his voice yield more satisfactorily to his mean- 
ings, if he understands the principles under which the mechanism 
operates; just as the engineer, who understands thoroughly the 
construction of his own engine is able to get better speed and 
operation out of it upon the road, than an engineer to whom the 
locomotive is strange. 



THE SPEECH INSTRUMENT 103 

USING THE VOICE AS AN INSTRUMENT 

The statement has been repeatedly made that the voice is an 
instrument; it is a musical instrument, the voice is far more ca- 
pable of producing melody and harmony than it is noise ; only in 
its abnormal state, in which there are defects in the functioning 
of the organism, does the voice produce what may be termed noise. 
Is it not our problem, then, to try to discover under what conditions 
the voice produces its greatest melody ? 

In Chapter I we learn that our attention is repelled by unpleas- 
ant objects, and that it is easier to affix attention upon pleasant 
things. This principle carries in the realm of sound. Unpleasant 
sounds cause us to stop our ears, to turn away our heads, to run; 
pleasant sounds invite our attention and bring us satisfaction. 
Audiences do not assemble to hear the clatter of wagons and street 
cars through the crowded street, but they assemble in large num- 
bers to hear the melody possible from a great symphony orchestra. 

Nature of Sounds In considering the human voice as a tone 
or musical instrument, the first point of importance is the nature 
of sound itself. All considerations of sound according to the phys- 
icist viewpoint involve these factors. First, a sound source; sec- 
ond, a vibrating body ; third, which may not always be included 
except in the study of tone instruments, a resonating body. Sound 
is always the result of the vibration of something. In the violin, 
it is the string, in the human voice, the vocal cords. The sound 
stimulus is that which originates and continues the vibration and 
the resonator is that which increases the carrying power of the 
tone. Sound possesses, according to the physicist, pitch, intensity, 
and quality, timbre. Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of 
the tone and is based upon the number of vibrations per second. 
Intensity refers to the loudness or weakness of the sound, and is 
measured by the amplitude of the vibration. Quality or timbre 
is used to describe the character of a sound possessing over-tones. 
"We recognize one tone as opposed to the other by its timbre, pitch 
and intensity. 

You may readily distinguish the piano from the violin note by 
the peculiar nature of the over-tones, or to be more explicit, by 
the quality or timbre of each instrument's sound. 

The psychologist gives somewhat different characteristics to 
sound. He characterizes sound by pitch or quality; timbre, in- 



104 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

tensity, time and volume or extensity. Professor Seashore* points 
out that just as color vision is a quality of the sense of sight, so 
pitch is a quality of tone determined by the sense of hearing. In- 
tensity refers to the loudness or weakness of the tone. Extensity 
refers to the bigness or smallness of a tone. The low notes of the 
pipe organ sound big. The high notes seem small in comparison. 

Sound is spoken of by the physicist as travelling in wave lengths. 
Really sound does not create waves in the atmosphere similar to 
the ripples of water. The particles of air are disturbed in a straight 
line between the vibrating body and the ear. In fact these vibra- 
tions radiate in all directions from the sound body. The wave 
curve is used because with it the characteristics of sound can best 
be illustrated for purpose of investigation and study. 

Let the student examine two instruments — a violin, and a cor- 
net — and try to determine how the sound of each is made. Let us 
consider the violin first. How does the player bring forth the 
melodies possible from the violin? Some one suggests that the 
player pushes the bow across the strings of the instrument thus 
producing sound ; some one else will suggest that it is the vibrating 
string that produces the melody. Both are right, both activities 
are required, but let us separate the two conceptions or others that 
may be made as to how the sound is produced, by arranging these 
elements in successive steps. First, it is necessary for the player 
to bow the strings of the violin. Muscular activity is essential; 
the bow must be pushed across the string by the player ; there must 
be some generator or stimulator for the vibrating string. This push 
of the bow across the instrument thus generating the vibration may 
be termed the motor factor in sound production. Next, the string 
must be so arranged on the violin that it will vibrate; in other 
words, a vibrator is essential to the sound. But what is the box 
upon which the strings are mounted, what function does it serve? 
Why not stretch the strings of the violin upon a piece of board or 
upon the wall of the room, or from the back of a chair to the seat ? 
Because the laws of sound have taught us that the vibration may 
be augmented, enlarged, by a cavity of certain size and shape. The 
sound of the vibrating strings may be enriched by the cavity of 
the box when the cavity is located in a certain position, by what 
is called resonance. A resonator is an essential part to the pro- 



*Psychology of Musical Talent. 



THE SPEECH INSTRUMENT 105 

duction of sound on the violin. Then there are the finger move- 
ments made by the player upon the neck of the instrument, which 
do what ? — Alter the pitch of the notes. 

Thus the production of sound upon the violin accords with the 
laws of the physics of sound which are, that sound is produced by 
a vibrating substance called sound source; that there must be a 
stimulus to the vibrating body called the sound stimulator; that 
there may be amplification of the vibrations by a cavity of a size, 
depending upon the type of the vibration, called a resonator. Ob- 
servation of other musical instruments will disclose that all possess 
motor, vibrato)' and resonator. 

Now let us consider the cornet, how is this instrument played? 
How are the rich notes it issues forth produced? Let us examine 
the instrument carefully. What are the coils in the pipes for? 
They represent the resonator of the instrument and the size of the 
resonator is variable by means of keys located in the center of the 
instrument. But where is the vibrator? The lips of the player 
provide this. But what sets the vibrator into motion? Where 
is the motor? The chest of the player provides this. 

The voice instrument resembles, quite, the cornet. The chest 
provides the motor power for the vibrator, which is the vocal cords ; 
and instead of the resonator being the tubes of the cornet, it is the 
cavities of the head, — the throat (pharynx), the mouth, and the 
nose. 

VOICE PRODUCTION 

We are now ready to take up the consideration of the production 
of voice ; but before taking up the study in detail, let the follow- 
ing questions or similar subjects be the basis of your own reflection 
or of class discussion. It will present to all an interesting side- 
light on the usual misconceptions of the vocal instrument. 

1. What is the size and shape of the chest ? Where is its lowest 
extremity? Why do we breathe? How do we breathe? To what 
extent is the chest an empty cavity? 

2. What are the vocal cords? How many are there. What do 
they look like ? How do they function for tone ? Do they serve for 
any other purpose than for tone productions ? 

3. How many cavities resonate the voice? Locate and describe 
three. What is a "cold"? 



106 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

THE MOTOR 

Distinguish Between Respiration for Health and for Speech. 
Breathe quietly for five or six times, then speak the following 
sentence: The pen is mightier than the sword. Do you notice 
any difference in the use of the breath in respiration normally 
followed and that used in speech? Breathing has two functions 
for the body, to supply sufficient air containing oxygen and to emit 
from the lungs carbon-dioxide, or waste matter from the lungs, 
— and to supply the vocal cords with a stimulus for vibration. 
Respiration involves two processes, — inhalation, in which the air 
is drawn into the. chest, and exhalation, in which the air is ex- 
pelled from the chest. In normal breathing when air is supplied 
the chest for purposes of health, the vocal cords are completely 
relaxed and lie back against the walls of the thyroid. 

A sound chest is not only an essential for health, but it is a 
requisite for effective voice. Plenty of exercise which will intro- 
duce into the chest, oxygen, fresh air, is of course to be recom- 
mended. This exercise of course must not be overdone. Have you 
ever experienced after taking deep breaths vigorously for several 
minutes, or after a brisk walk in the open on a cool morning, a 
sense of dizziness? This is the result of too much ogygen in the 
chest. Respiration for speech must be more rapid and possess 
greater vigor than that only for health. The breath in speech also 
provides fresh oxygen for the purposes of health by the inhalation 
and exhalations. When speaking continuously such as in public 
address, it is not advisable to attempt to supply the chest with air 
by inhalation through the nose ; rather let the air be gently inhaled 
through the mouth and taken in during the phrases spoken. For 
speech, the inhalation must be taken quickly and quietly. The 
exhalation is the chief factor in speech. One cannot well produce 
sound for speech with the inhaled breath except in the production 
of sound for certain emotional states. 

42. TRAIN FOR THE SKILLFUL CONTROL OF THE MUSCLES REG- 
ULATING THE SPEAKING BREATH. 

You probably have experienced the truth of this principle several 
times for yourself upon the athletic field. After vigorous yelling, 
have you noticed a soreness about the throat as well as loss of voice, 
hoarseness, etc. ? "While there are other elements that enter in, the 



THE SPEECH INSTRUMENT 107 

chief cause of this condition is an improper control of the breath. 
Have you ever noticed the same sensation after a prolonged oral 
discussion of some topic ? If not, this may be tried out by selecting 
an oration such as Webster's Reply to Hayne, in the United States 
Senate, and by reading it with what you think to be a fitting emo- 
tional expression. Unless you properly control the breath in the 
enunciation of the words, you will soon find that the soreness in 
the throat will occur and that a general impairment of the tone 
will follow. 

43. UNDERSTAND HOW THE CHEST FUNCTIONS. 

The average student seems to possess little, if any, idea of how 
the air gets into the chest and of how it escapes, except that he 
knows there is a movement of the chest in respiration and that the 
air is inhaled or exhaled through the mouth or nose. The princi- 
ples involved in respiration are similar to those involved in filling 
a fountain pen filler with ink. In the latter, the bulb of the filler 
is pressed between the fingers to remove the air. The opening of 
the filler is dipped beneath the surface of the ink and the pressure 
of the fingers on the bulb removed. The bulb then assumes its 
original shape, creating a tendency toward a vacuum in the bulb. 
The pressure of the atmosphere forces the ink into the filler. As 
the pressure of the bulb is released, the ink "is sucked into the 
filler", we say. The chest is a cavity, the capacity of which can 
be varied, as the bulb of the filler. At the floor of the chest 
is a heavy muscle called the diaphragm. The ribs are embedded in 
muscles called the external and internal intercostals. The abdom- 
inal muscles form the exterior wall of the abdomen. All of these 
function in respiration. 

Before the details of breathing are discussed, two principles 
should be understood; first, the principle of antagonism among 
muscles, and second, the principles of reflex action. If you lift 
your right hand to the shoulder, will the same muscle return it to 
your side? No, there are two sets of muscles, one that lifts the 
hand, another that lowers it. The action of these muscles may be 
noted by placing the left hand about the right arm above the elbow 
as the right hand is lifted to and from the shoulder. Throughout 
the body muscles act against each other; that is, one muscle con- 
trols movement in one direction and another muscle controls the 



108 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

movement in the return direction. The two muscles act one against 
the other when, for instance, the arm is lifted but half way to the 
shoulder and is held suspended there. In breathing, the muscles 
act against each other thus establishing control. Secondly, we are 
not conscious of the process of normal respiration. Breathing 
continues without our attention by reflex action. Let us carry the 
idea further ; habits of movement are the result of reflex action. A 
stenographer does not think which key is touched as each letter is 
formed. The operaton of the machine is by automatic action. 
But there was a time when this was not the case. "When beginning 
to use the typewriter, the stenographer found it necessary to learn 
the key board and to be conscious of each letter struck. Incorrect 
habits of breathing for speech may be removed by attending to 
correct habits. Soon, the correct habits become fixed actions, no 
longer needing attention. In speech all habits of breathing must be- 
come reflex. The speaker's attention is demanded for the expression 
of his purpose, for his ideas. The proper breath for all tones should 
come automatically. 

Inhalation. The two main sets of muscles that function for in- 
halation are the diaphragm and the external intercostals. The 
latter lift the circular ribs thereby increasing the lateral capacity 
of the chest. The diaphragm, at the floor of the chest, resembles 
an inverted bowl, when relaxed, with the rounded portion of the 
bowl upwards. When the diaphragm contracts it flattens out with 
a downward movement pressing against the digestive organs, thus 
increasing the vertical capacity of the chest. This increasing of 
the capacity of the chest "pulls in" the air for the inhalation. 
During this process the muscles of exhalation are relaxed. 

Exhalation. The two main sets of muscles that function in ex- 
halation are the internal intercostals and abdominal muscles. How 
is the breath expelled from the chest? The internal intercostal 
muscles contract, pulling the ribs downward and together gently or 
forcefully, at will, while the external intercostals relax in antag- 
onism. Thus, the lateral capacity of the chest is decreased, forcing 
the air outward through the mouth and nose. Then, the abdominal 
muscles, at the same time, contract. They pull inward against the 
organs of digestion that have been pushed downward by the dia- 
phragm in the inhalation. The result is the crowding upwards 
against the diaphragm of the digestive organs, pushing the dia- 



THE SPEECH INSTRUMENT 



109 



phragm back into its relaxed position and shape of the inverted 
bowl. The diaphragm acts in antagonism to the abdominal mus- 
cles, thus establishing equilibrium and control. 





Figure 4, The Chest 
(From Mills' Voice Production) 

A side view of the chest is given in Figure 4. In figure A, the 
capacity as shown by the shaded lines is smaller than B. Figure A 
shows the chest when deflated. Note the position and shape of the 
diaphragm in each figure, as well as the fact that the chest capacity 
is increased in B, both vertically and horizontally. 

Methods of Breathing. Generally considered, there may be three 
methods of breathing. The basis of making the classification rests 
on the muscle action that is accentuated. All breathing demands 
to a slight degree at least some action of all the muscles above de- 
scribed. But the air may be drawn into the chest by lifting the 
collar-bone or clavicle. Only a small amount of air may be thus 
inhaled. This is termed clavicular breathing. It is used by some 
speakers and singers when they desire to fill the chest to its utmost 
capacity; singers especially may be observed lifting the shoulders 
slightly on an inhalation. Then, there is a method in which the 
breath is introduced into the lower portion of the chest, mainly. 
This type may be noted by the expansion of the abdominal region, 
while there is none in the upper part of the chest. This is termed 
abdominal breathing and is quite common, especially among men. 
The third method accentuates the action of the intercostal muscles ; 
the ribs are raised and lowered with little support from either the 
diaphragm and abdominal muscles or the clavicular. This is 



110 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

termed intercostal breathing; and it is quite common, especially 
among women. The best method of breathing for speech involves 
the entire expansion of the chest, especially by means of the inter- 
costals and the diaphragm. For effective breathing in speech, the 
necessity for the complete control of the muscles of respiration is 
now apparent. 

In connection with this study of how the chest functions, let the 
student follow the exercises for developing breath control suggested 
below; but also, let the student work out other drills based upon 
his personal needs. 

44. SPEAK WITH AN ADEQUATELY FILLED CHEST. 

If the function of the muscles of the chest, in speech, is to sup- 
ply and regulate the outflow of air for the production of tone, our 
next step is to determine to what extent the chest should be filled 
with air for speech. Let the student first express a sentence after 
having forced much of the air out of the lungs, then let the same 
sentence be repeated after the chest has been fully inflated. Again 
repeat the sentence with the chest filled with the quantity of air 
normally used in speech. The student will readily note the difference 
in the type of speech produced by the different chest inflations. 
Let the student observe the members of the class as they speak; 
can you suggest any member who speaks with insufficient air in the 
chest? Let this observation be carried outside the classroom; it 
will be noted that there are many individuals who speak with an 
insufficient amount of air in the lungs. On the other hand, it is 
possible to fill the lungs too full for easy speech. What is the 
guiding principle determining the amount of air that should be in 
the lungs for effective speech? It is the conception that the chest 
muscles must act as a lever on the air of the chest forcing it out 
that gives us the best understanding of breath control. If there 
is little air in the lungs, little can be forced over the vocal cords for 
tone. If there is too much air in the chest for easy control, the air 
escapes too rapidly, producing a " breathy" tone. One cannot pry 
an automobile out of the mud with a twelve-inch rule. A long bar 
with the fulcrum near the wheel of the car gives "leverage". 
Similary, there should be just enough air in the lungs to give the 
muscles of the chest the most adequate power of control. 



THE SPEECH INSTKUMENT 111 

Tests carried on in the Speaking Voice Laboratory of the University of 
Iowa show that most individuals speak on a chest capacity of about fifty 
percent of the whole capacity, as measured by the spirometer. 

This is a measurement of averages. Those whom we might term the better 
speakers, however, it has been found, speak upon a chest capacity amounting to 
about seventy-five percent of the whole. Let the student experiment for himself 
to learn the cubic contents of his own speaking chest capacity. This may be 
determined in the laboratory or in the gymnasium; exhale the well filled chest 
of air into the spirometer five times, making an average of the measurements to 
determine the chest capacity as a whole. Then utter aloud two or three times 
the following sentence, — 

Might is not always right. 

Try to speak these words with abnormally filled chest such as you use regularly 
in talking. As soon as the sensation of normally speaking this sentence has 
been experienced, utter just the word, "Might," and exhale the remaining 
portion of the breath into the spirometer. Try this five times, with the caution 
that you do not inflate the chest beyond that you normally use in speaking. 
The average may then be compared with that of the full chest capacity and the 
speaking chest capacity be determined. 

45. TRAIN FOR CONTROL OF THE THREE FORMS OF SPEECH 
EXHALATION. 

In order that we may observe the relationship between breathing 
and intonation let us combine the tone with exhaled breath. There 
are three types of exhalation prominent in speech. 

Effusive Exhalation 
Explosive Exhalation 
Expulsive Exhalation 

Effusive Exhalation. Let a member of the class coordinate the 
voice and breath in the utterance of a sentence denoting the emo- 
tion of 

Weariness 
Extreme caution 
Reverence 
Extreme deliberation 

Note, if you will, the specfic type of exhalation used to communi- 
cate the thought and feeling of the above emotions. The breath 
is exhaled in a smooth-flowing stream with no abruptness or irreg- 
ularity. There is a continuousness necessary to the tone in the 



112 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

expression of the mood of awe, of reverence, etc. It would be 
impossible to express these moods so successfully by any other type 
of breathing. The type of breathing necessary to produce such a 
tone is termed, Effusive Exhalation. 

Explosive Exhalation. Again, let the student coordinate the 
breath and voice with the thought of a sentence denoting anger or 
extreme haste. Utter the following words with the characteristic 
vigor of the college yell: 

Rah! Rah! Rah! Rah! 

Or let the student give the millitary command, 

Halt! 

Would it be in keeping with the thought and emotion to give the 
college yell or military commands with the Effusive type of breath- 
ing? It will be observed that the Explosive Exhalation is the 
opposite of the Effusive. In the Explosive the breath is emitted in 
short puffs. These create slight explosions of tone which may be 
indicative of certain moods or emotions. 

Expulsive Exhalation. Let a member of the class give directions 
as to how one may go from the class room to the city post office. 
Note the type of breathing used in giving this description. Con- 
trast this type of breathing with the other types already discussed. 
It will be observed that the Expulsive breath is a type somewhat 
midway between the extreme of the Explosive and the Effusive. 
It is the Expulsive type of breathing that we use in most of our 
conversation and public address. 

An absolute control of the muscles of the chest is essential to the 
effective use of these three forms of exhalation for speech. 

DEEP BREATHING EXERCISES 
A 

1. (a) Stand erect, lift the hands slowly from the sides of the body front- 

wards high up over the head, inhaling the breath. Return the hands 
slowly to the sides exhaling. 

(b) Repeat, except lift and lower the hands sidewards in a line with the 
body. 

(c) Repeat, except when bringing the arms down exhale on one or more 

vowel sounds. 

2. Stand erect, inhale and exhale rapidly like the panting of a dog. This 
exercise is especially good for developing control of the diaphragm. 



THE SPEECH INSTRUMENT 113 

3. (a) Inhale, hold a lighted match or candle as near the lips as possible, 
then exhale without extinguishing the flame, 
(b) Repeat, exhaling with vowel sounds uttered explosively, or with a 
rah! rah! rah! * 

B 

(From Curtis) 

Attention: Stand erect with arms hanging. 
Exercise I: 

1. Elevate chest by muscles alone; 2. Take a deep inspiration; 3. Say the 
alphabet as far and as many times as you can, without lowering the 
chest; 4. Expire; 5. Lower the chest and relax as in Attention. 
This exercise may be repeated until the alphabet can be said several times 
on one expiration. 
Exercise II: 

1. Elevate the chest; 2. Inspire; 3. Extend arms, thumbs up; 4. Tense 
arm muscles, cramping fingers; 5. Flex arms at elbow until fingers 
touch chest — repeat two to four times; 6. Attention; 7. Forced expira- 
tion; 8. Lower the chest; 9. Rest. 
Exercise III: • 

Same as in II, except thumbs aie back, then arm is flexed upward, as in 
Fig. 2, continuing, the fingers are brought to the shoulders. Repeat two 
to four times. 
Exercise TV: 

Same as in II, except arms are hanging at sides, thumbs out, and the arm is 
flexed, bringing fingers to shoulders. The upper arm does not change its 
position in these exercises. 
Exercise V: 

Attention, same as in all, with elevation of chest and deep inspiration, then 
tense arm, leg, and body muscles. Thumbs together in front, palms 
toward floor. 1. Push down an imaginary resisting body, bending the 
back. 2. Little fingers together, palms up. Lift a heavy weight, all 
muscles in tension, until erect, then repeat once, then Exercise II, 6, 7, 
8, 9, as before. 
Exercise VI: 

Hands together at chest, body relaxed, thumbs touching. 1. Shoot arms up- 
ward, thumbs passing nose; separate and drop arms, back of hands tend- 
ing, to come together at back, thumbs always backward. Come back to 
first position through the same arc. 2. Drop the hands, thumbs touching 
hips, then continuing upward, thumbs always pointing back, to a position 
as at start in Exercise III, except there is a complete rotation of the hand. 
Return to first position through the same arc and repeat in turn, increasing 
in rapidity. This exercise is done in relaxation. It is the best body 
gymnastic for the speaker or singer, as it develops the chest and back 
muscles, and tends to produce a good carriage of the body. This exercise 



114 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

should always conclude the tension exercise. The pupil, in cooling off, 
should stand erect with the shoulders back. The simple repetition of 
these exercises once or twice a day will suffice to keep the pupil in the 
most excellent physical condition. 

VIBRATOR 

In all sound there must be a vibrating body ; in the human voice 
this vibrating body is the two vocal cords. They are neatly pro- 
tected by the shield of the larynx which is sometimes termed the 
Adam's Apple. These two ligaments are attached to the shield 
all around its circumference, except in the middle where, like the 
diameter of a circle, the two edges of the cords are found. This 
opening between the two cords is called the glottis. It is through 
the glottis that the air passes in the production of voice, as well 
as in respiration. For the act of breathing, the muscles of the 
larynx pull the cords nearer the sidewalls of the shield; but for 
voice, the cords are brought so closely together that the edges 
almost touch. The pitch of the voice is varied by the muscles of 
larynx which stretch or relax these two edges of the cords; the 
greater the tension on the cords, the higher the pitch of the voice. 
In general, the intensity of the voice, that is, the degree of loudness 
of the tone, is determined by the passage of the breath through 
the glottis. The greater the force of the breath applied normally 
to the edges of the cords, the louder the tone. Of course, it must 
be understood that resonance also plays a part in controlling the 
intensity of the voice. (See footnote.*) 

No attention should be given the vocal cords, aside from some 
training in controlling the pitch of the tone, the constancy of the 
tone and the intensity of the tone. 

46. TRAIN FOR CONTROL OF PITCH. 

Every voice has a range of pitch for speech that is more or less 



*It will be of interest and of value to the class if the teacher will provide for 
dissection of the larynx of a sheep or bullock. No attempt should be made to 
dissect out the muscles controlling the action of the cords; let the instructor 
merely remove the heavy muscles surrounding the larynx and then open the 
voice box by cutting a straight incision at the back part of the largest portion 
of the larynx, the thyroid. If care is taken not to cut deeper than is necessary 
to open the larynx, the vocal cords will be readily observed; and by moving up 
and down the anterior portion of the thyroid, the action involved in tensing the 
cords will be noticed. The main value of this experiment will be the knowledge 
of the nature of the cords; no student then can think of them as two "strings". 



THE SPEECH INSTRUMENT 



115 



fixed by the nature of the speech organs. Some voices are naturally 
of low pitch, others of medium, and still others of high range of 




Figure 5. 



N. Nasal Passages 
H. Hard Palate 
S. Soft Palate 
Diagram Illustrating the Voice Instrument 

(From Brown and Behnke) 



pitch. One should not attempt to train his voice beyond its nat- 
ural limitations of range. A person with a high voice should not 



116 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

attempt to cultivate the same type of voice as one possessing a low 
voice. The musician recognizes this fact when he classifies voices 
as soprano, tenor, contralto, basso, etc. With special regard for 
variety of pitch, read some selections assigned. 

Train for Constancy op Pitch. Some voices have a tendency 
to "break", that is, to suffer an interruption in the vibration of 
the vocal cords, in speech. Others fail to keep a definite pitch, 
when such is desirable. The difficulty may be with the hearing, 
the ear may not grasp the pitch; or, it may be in the muscles of 
the larynx : they may fail to hold the vocal cords with equal ten- 
sion. It may be, also, that there exists a defect in the vocal cords 
themselves. But generally considered, the difficulty is one of in- 
correct coordination of breath with tone : the muscles of the larynx 
do not hold the tension of the cords constant as the pressure of 
the air in the chest diminishes with the out-going breath. If the 
student breathes rightly, the difficulty may be overcome by sound- 
ing with a constant tone any note in the scale easily within his 
range of pitch. 

(a) Strike a note easily in your range of pitch with the tuning 
fork or other instrument, then sound the word "ah", for a period 
of five seconds, giving special attention to keeping the pitch con- 
stant. Repeat, with other vowels on the same pitch; then vary 
the pitch. 

47. TRAIN FOR CONTROL OF INTENSITY. 

Voices vary considerably in force, intensity, or as we sometimes 
say, "in volume". Some voices are louder than others. Loudness 
determines the carrying power of the voice and it is a characteristic 
of all pitches, whether low or high. Voices of low pitch do not 
carry father than those of high pitch, necessarily. Carrying power 
depends upon the amount of breath energy the vocal cords will 
stand without irritation and hoarseness. Some voices by nature 
will carry farther than others, but the intensity of all voices may 
be improved by training. A voice of more quiet intensity is much 
more pleasing than one of undue loudness. 

RESONATOR 

Nature of Resonance. Strike a tuning fork and hold it in 
vibration. The faintness of the sound will be apparent. Then, 



THE SPEECH INSTRUMENT 117 

strike the fork again and rest its base on the desk or some other 
solid substance. The tone of the fork will be very much more 
audible. Now, secure a straight sided resonance jar from the Phys- 
ics Laboratory and fill the jar partially with water, until the column 
of air in the jar amplifies the tone of the vibrating fork to the 
greatest degree. Alternate the position of the vibrating fork, now 
holding it away from the jar, now holding the fork over the open- 
ing of the jar. The amplification of the tone by the air cavity in 
the jar is clear. 

Similarly, the vibrations of the human cords are amplified by 
resonance. The difference is that in the voice there is more than 
one resonance cavity and some of the resonators of the voice are 
variable in size. If a tuning fork of another pitch, say four full 
notes higher, is held over the resonance jar, mentioned above, it 
will be noted that the tone is not so well amplified. But the water 
in the jar may be varied in depth for any tone resonance. The 
pitches of the voice vary to a considerable degree; nature has, 
therefore, provided an easily variable resonator for all the pitches 
of the voice. The main air chambers which resonate the voice are 
the nasal, the throat, and the mouth cavities. The size of the 
nasal cavity is fixed, but the size and shape of the throat and 
mouth cavities may be varied. This will be apparent if the vi- 
brating tuning fork is held near the lips opened for the sound of 
"oh"; the cavities of the throat and mouth may be adjusted so 
as to amplify perceptibly the tone of the fork. 



SELECTIONS 



1. HAMLET'S INSTRUCTION TO THE PLAYERS 

Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounce it to you, trippingly 
on the tongue, but if you mouth it, as many of your players do, I 
had as lief the town-crier spoke my lines. Nor do not saw the air 
too much with your hands, thus, but use all gently ; for in the very 
torrent, tempest, and, as I may say, the whirlwind of passion, you 
must acquire and beget a temperance that may give it smoothness. 
O, it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig-pated fel- 
low tear a passion to tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of the 
groundlings, who for the most part are capable of nothing but inex- 
plicable dumb-shows and noise. I could have such a fellow whipped 
for o'erdoing Termagant; it out-herods Herod: pray you, avoid it. 

Be not too tame neither, but let your own discretion be your 
tutor ; suit the action to the word, the word to the action ; with this 
special observance, that you o 'erstep not the modesty of nature ; for 
anything so overdone is from the purpose of playing, whose end, 
both at the first and now, was and is, to hold, as 'twere, the mirror 
up to nature ; to show virtue her own feature, scorn her own image, 
and the very age and body of the time his form and pressure. 
Now this overdone, or come tardy off, though it make the unskillful 
laugh, cannot but make the judicious grieve ; the censure of the which 
one must in your allowance o'erweigh a whole theatre of others. 
0, there be players that I have seen play, and heard others praise, 
and that highly, not to speak it profanely, that, neither having the 
accent of Christian nor the gait of Christian, pagan, nor man, have 
so strutted and bellowed that I have thought some of nature's 
journeymen had made men and not made them well, they imitated 
humanity so abominably. 

Hamlet, Act III, Scene 2. 

2. POLONIUS'S ADVICE TO LAERTES 

These few precepts in thy memory 

Look thou character. Give thy thoughts no tongue, 

Nor any unproportion'd thought his act. 

Be thou familiar, but by no means vulgar. 

Those friends thou hast, and their adoption tried, 

118 



SELECTIONS 119 

Grapple them to thy soul with hoops of steel, 

But do not dull thy palm with entertainment 

Of new-hatch 'd unfledged comrade. Beware 

Of entrance to a quarrel ; but being in, 

Bear it, that the opposed may beware of thee. 

Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice : 

Take each man's censure, but reserve thy judgment. 

Costly thy habit, as thy purse can buy, 

But not express 'd in fancy ; rich, not gaudy : 

For the apparel oft proclaims the man ; 

And they in France of the best rank and station 

Are of a most select and generous chief in that. 

Neither a borrower nor lender be : 

For loan oft loses both itself and friend, 

And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 

This above all : to thine own self be true. 

And it must follow, as the night the day, 

Thou canst not then be false to any man. 

—Hamlet, I., 3. 

3. THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS 

This is the version which Mr. Lincoln desired to be known as his 
address at Gettysburg. It is a revision of his own manuscript 
which he did not read and the address he spoke as reported by the 
associated press. The changes are slight. Taken from " Gettys- 
burg and Lincoln" by Henry S. Burrage (Putnam 1906) page 131. 
A full description of the occasion will be found pages 81-140. 



Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on 
this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated 
to the proposition that all men are created equal. 

Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that 
nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long en- 
dure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have 
come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for 
those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is 
altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. 

But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate — we cannot conse- 



120 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

crate — we cannot hallow — this ground. The brave men, living and 
dead, who struggled here have consecrated it for above our poor 
power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remem- 
ber what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. 
It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished 
work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. 
It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining 
before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion 
to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion 
— that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died 
in vain — that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of 
freedom — and that government of the people, by the people, for 
the people, shall not perish from the earth. 

— A. Lincoln. 

4. THE PRODIGAL SON 

And he said, a certain man had two sons; and the younger of 
them said to his father, Father, give me the portion of goods that 
f alleth to me. And he divided unto them his living. And not many 
days after, the younger son gathered all together and took his jour- 
ney into a far country, and there wasted his substance with riotous 
living. And when he had spent all, there arose a mighty famine 
in that land; and he began to be in want. 

And he went and joined himself to a citizen of that country; 
and he sent him into his fields to feed swine. And he would fain 
have filled with the husks that the swine did eat ; and no man gave 
unto him. And when he came to himself, he said, How many 
servants of my father's have bread enough and to spare, and I 
perish with hunger! I will arise and go to my father, and will 
say unto him, Father, I have sinned against heaven, and before 
thee, and am no more worthy to be called thy son ; make me as one 
of thy hired servants. 

And he arose, and came to his father. But when he was yet a 
great way off, his father saw him and had compassion, and ran, 
and fell on his neck and kissed him. And the son said unto him, 
Father, I have sinned against heaven, and in thy sight, and am no 
more worthy to be called thy son. But the father said to his 
servants, Bring forth the best robe, and put it on him, and put a 
ring on his hand, and shoes on his feet ; and bring hither the fatted 



SELECTIONS 121 

calf and kill it ; and let us eat and be merry ; for this my son was 
dead, and is alive again ; he was lost, and is found. And they be- 
gan to be merry. 

Now his older son was in the field ; and as he came and drew nigh 
to the house, he heard music and dancing. And he called one of 
the servants, and asked what these things meant. And he said 
unto him, Thy brother is come ; and thy father hath killed the fatted 
calf because he hath received him safe and sound. And he was 
angry, and would not go in; therefore come his father out, and 
entreated him. 

And he answering, said to his father, Lo, these many years do I 
serve thee, neither transgressed I at any time thy commandment; 
and yet thou never gavest me a kid, that I might make merry with 
my friends; but as soon as this thy son was come which hath de- 
voured thy living, thou hast killed for him the fatted calf. And 
he said unto him, Son, thou art ever with me ; and all that I have 
is thine. It was meet that we should make merry, and be glad ; for 
this thy brother was dead, and is alive again ; and was lost and is 
found. — Bible. 

5. TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE 

If I stood here to-night to tell you the story of Napoleon, I should 
take it from the lips of Frenchmen, who find no language rich 
enough to paint the great captain of the Nineteenth century. If I 
were to tell you the story of Washington, I should take it from your 
hearts, — you, who think no marble white enough in which to carve 
the name of the Father of his country. I am about to tell you the 
story of a negro who has left hardly one written line. I am to 
glean it from the reluctant testimony of Britons, Frenchmen, Span- 
iards, — men who despised him as a negro and a slave, and hated him 
because he had beaten them in many a battle. 

You remember that Macaulay says, comparing Cromwell with 
Napoleon, that Cromwell showed the greater military genius, if we 
consider that he never saw an army until he was forty ; while Na- 
poleon was educated when a boy in the best military schools of 
Europe; Cromwell manufactured his own army; Napoleon at the 
age of twenty-seven was placed at the head of the best troops 
Europe ever saw. They were both successful ; but, says Macaulay, 
with such disadvantages the Englishman showed the greater genius. 



122 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

Whether you allow the inference or not, you will at least allow 
that it is a fair mode of measurement. Apply it to Toussaint. 
Cromwell never saw an army till he was forty; this man never 
saw a soldier till he was fifty. Cromwell manufactured his own 
army — out of what ? Englishmen — the best blood in Europe. Out 
of the middle-class among Englishmen — the best blood of the Island. 
And with it he conquered what ? Englishmen — their equals. This 
man manufactured his army out of what. Out of what you call the 
despicable race of negroes, debased, demoralized by two hundred 
years of slavery, one hundred thousand of them imported into the 
island within four years, unable to speak a dialect intelligible to 
each other. Yet out of this mixed and, as you say, despicable 
mass, he forged a thunderbolt and hurled it at what? At the 
proudest blood in Europe, the Spaniard, and sent him home con- 
quered ; at the most warlike blood in Europe, the French, and put 
them under his feet ; at the pluckiest blood in Europe, the English, 
and they skulked home to Jamaica. Now if Cromwell was a gen- 
eral, at least this man was a soldier. 

Some doubt the courage of the negro. Go to Hayti and stand on 
those fifty thousand graves of the best soldiers France ever had, 
and ask them what they think of the negro's sword. And if that 
does not satisfy you, go to France, to the splendid mausoleum of 
the Counts of Rochambeau, and to the eight thousand graves of 
Frenchmen who skulked home under the English flag, and ask 
them. And if that does not satisfy you, come home, and if it had 
been October, 1859, you might have come by way of quaking Vir- 
ginia, and asked her what she thought of negro courage. 

And you may also remember this — that we Saxons were slaves 
about four hundred years, sold with the land, and our fathers never 
raised a finger to end that slavery. They waited till Christianity 
and civilization, till commerce and the discovery of America melted 
away their chains. Spartacus in Italy led the slaves of Rome 
against the Empress of the world. She murdered him and crucified 
them. There never was a slave rebellion successful but one and 
that was in St. Domingo. Every race has been some time or other 
in chains. But there never was a race that, weakened and degraded 
by such chattel slavery, unaided tore off its own fetters, forged them 
into swords and won its liberty on the battle field, but one, and that 
was the black race of St. Domingo. 

So much for the courage of the negro. Now look at his endur- 



SELECTIONS 123 

ance. In 1805 he said to the white men, ' ' This island is ours ; not 
a white foot shall touch it. ' ' Side by side with him stood the South 
American republics planted by the best blood of the country of 
Lope da Vega and Cervantes. They topple over so often that you 
could no more daguerreotype their crumbling fragments than you 
could the waves of the ocean. And yet at their side the negro has 
kept his island sacredly to himself. It is said that at first with 
rare patriotism the Haytien government ordered the destruction of 
all the sugar plantations remaining and discouraged its culture, 
deeming that the temptation which lured the French back again to 
attempt their enslavement. Burn over New York to-night, fill up 
her canals, sink every ship, destroy her railroads, blot out every 
remnant of education from her sons, let her be ignorant and pen- 
niless, with nothing but her hands to begin the world over again — 
how much could she do in sixty years? And Europe, too, would 
lend you money, but she would not lend Hayti a dollar. Hayti 
from the ruins of her colonial dependence, is become a civilized 
state, the seventh nation in the catalogue of commerce with this 
country, inferior in morals and education to none of the West In- 
dian isles. Foreign merchants trust her goods as willingly as they 
do our own. Thus far she has foiled the ambition of Spain, the 
greed of England and the malicious statesmanship of Calhoun. 
Toussaint made her what she is. In this work there have been 
grouped around him a score of men mostly of pure negro blood who 
ably seconded his efforts. They were able in war, and skillful in 
civil affairs, but not unlike remarkable for that rare mingling of 
qualities which alone makes true greatness and insures a man lead- 
ership among those otherwise almost his equals. Toussaint was 
indisputably their chief. Courage, purpose, endurance — these are 
the tests. He did plant a state so deep that all the world has not 
been able to root it up. 

I would call him Napoleon, but Napoleon made his way to the 
empire over broken oaths and through a sea of blood. This man 
never broke his word. "No retaliation," was his great motto and 
the rule of his life ; and the last words uttered to his son in France 
were these: "My boy, you will some day go back to St. Domingo; 
forget that France murdered your father." 

I would call him Cromwell, but Cromwell was only a soldier, and 
the State he founded went down with him into his grave. I would 
call him Washington, but the great Virginian held slaves. This 



124 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

man risked his empire rather than permit the slave-trade in the 
humblest village of his dominions. 

Fifty years hence, when truth gets a hearing, the Muse of History 
will put Phoeion for the Greek, and Brutus for the Roman, Hamp- 
den for England, Fayette for France, choose Washington as the 
bright, consummate flower of our earlier civilization, and John 
Brown the ripe fruit of our noonday, then, dipping her pen in the 
sunlight, will write in the clear blue, above them all, the name of 
the soldier, the statesman, the martyr, Toussaint L'Ouverture. 

—Wendell Phillips. 

6. AT FIVE O'CLOCK TEA 

"So good of you to come! ,, 

"Ah, thanks." 

"So good of you to come!" 

"As if I could get along without you! The obligation is all on 
my side." 

"How sweet of you to say so!" 

"Now I want you to meet Mrs. Slambang. Mrs. Slambang, let 
me present to you my deah friend, Mrs. Twiddle-twaddle." 

"So glad to know you, Mrs. Slambang! I have so often heard 
deah Mrs. Sweet speak of you that I feel quite as if I knew you. 
Beautiful day, isn't it?" 

"Chawming!" 

"What a lovely wintah we are having." 

"Chawming! So very, very gay, isn't it?" 

' ' Oh, very, very gay ! Haven 't I met you at Mrs. Teeters ' teas ? ' ' 

"I daresay you have. Isn't she a deah?" 

"Oh, I am extravagantly fond of her!" 

"I am, too. So clevah!" 

"Of course you go to the opera?" 

"Oh, I couldn't exist without it. Oh, Melba! Melba!!" 

"And Nordica! I rave over them all!" 

"I fairy CRY over them. And, do you know, I have a friend 
who does not care in the least for them. She isn 't a bit musical. ' ' 

"Oh, how sad ! I would die if I did not — Who is the tall lady in 
black over by the piano?" 

"I'm sure I do not know. What exquisite lace on her gown! 
Do you know that I just simply rave over beautiful lace ! ' ' 



SELECTIONS 125 

"Really!" 

"Yes, indeed! I care for it more than for jewels, because it — 
Do you know the tall, fine-looking man who has just come in?" 

"I'm sure I have seen him somewhere, and yet I cannot — Yes, 
thank you, I think I will have a cup of tea. How lovely the dining 
room looks!" 

"Lovely!" 

1 ' Mrs. Sweet has such exquisite taste ! ' ' 

"EXQUISITE! I often say— How do you do, my deah? So 
glad to see you!" 

1 ' Thanks ! So glad to meet YOU ! ' ' 

1 ' So good of you to say so ! Quite well, deah ? ' ' 

' ■ Oh, vulgarly so. I really must say good-by to dear Mrs. Sweet 
and go. I must look in on Mrs. Shoddy's for a few minutes." 

"So must I. We'll go together." 

"HOW LOVELY ! Good-by, deah Mrs. Sweet. Have had such 
a chawming time!" 

"Must you go so soon?" 

1 ' Yes, really ! Such a lovely time ! ' ' 

"So glad! But it is quite naughty of you to go so soon. So 
glad you came." 

"By-by. You will come to see me soon?" 

"Yes, indeed." 

"You MUST. By-by!" 

"By-by!" 

And as she gathers up her trailing skirts to walk down the steps 
she says: "Thank goodness, that's over!." 

— Morris Wade. 

7. IF 

If you can keep your head when all about you 

Are losing theirs and blaming it on you; 
If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you, 

But make allowance for their doubting too; 
If you can wait and not be tired by waiting, 

Or being lied about don't deal in lies, 
Or being hated don't give way to hating, 

And yet don't look too good, nor talk too wise; 
If you can dream — and not make dreams your master! 



126 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

If you can think — and not make thoughts your aim, 
If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster 

And treat those imposters just the same, 
If you can bear to hear the truth you've spoken 

Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools, 
Or watch the things you gave your life to, broken, 

And stoop and build 'em up with worn-out tools ; 
If you can make one heap of all your winnings 

And risk it on one turn of pitch-and-toss, 
And lose, and start again at your beginnings 

And never breathe a word about your loss; 
If you can force your heart and nerve and sinew 

To serve your turn long after they are gone, 
And so hold on when there is nothing in you 

Except the Will which says to them: "Hold on!" 

If you can talk with crowds and keep .your virtue. 

Or walk with Kings — nor lose the common touch, 
If neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you, 

If all men count with you, but none too much ; 
If you can fill the unforgiving minute 

With sixty seconds' worth of distance run, 
Yours is the Earth and everything that's in it, 

And which is more — you '11 be a Man, my son ! 

— Rudyard Kipling. 

8. MAUDIE DONE BALK 

The stories which especially delight ex-President Wilson are those 
that reveal the real personality of the negro, his naivete and disin- 
clination to admit that he doesn't understand "big words". 

And it always gives the President keen pleasure to tell Polk 
Miller's story of the darkey and the mule. An old negro went into 
the drug store in Richmond and said : 

"Boss, will you please, suh, call de colonel on de telephone?" 
"Yes" and he called the Colonel. The old darkey said: 
"Colonel, dat ar mule done stall right in de main street right 
out here in front of de store." 

"Yaas, suh, I done tied strings to his ears, but he didn't budge." 
"Yaas, suh, yaas, suh, What's dat? Yaas, suh, I build a fire un- 
der him, but it didn'a do nothin' but scorch de harness." 



SELECTIONS 127 

"Yaas, suh, yaas, suh, I teck de things out, but he wouldn't 
budge." 

"Yaas, suh, yaas, suh; What's dat? No, suh, no suh, Colonel, 
I didn't twist his tail." 

"Yas suh, yaas, suh, another gemman twist his tail; he look like 
a Northern gemman." 

"What's dat, Colonel? Yaas, suh, dey done tuk him to de 
hospital." 

"No, suh, no suh, I ain't heard yet. Too bad, he was a nice man." 

9. SPEECH AND SILENCE 

He who speaks honestly cares not, needs not care, though his 
words be preserved to remotest time. The dishonest speaker, not 
he only who purposely utters falsehoods, but he who does not pur- 
posely, and with sincere heart, utter Truth, and Truth alone; who 
babbles he knows not what, and has clapped no bridle on his tongue, 
but lets it run riot, ejecting chatter and futility — is among the 
most indisputable malefactors omitted, or inserted, in the Criminal 
Calendar. 

To him that will well consider it, idle speaking is precisely the 
beginning of all Hollowness, Half n ess, Infidelity (want of Faith- 
fulness) ; in the genial atmosphere in which rank weeds of every 
kind attain the mastery over noble fruits in man's life, and utterly 
choke them out : one of the most crying maladies of these days, an<J 
to be testified against, and in all ways to the uttermost withstood. 

Wise, of a widsom far beyond our shallow depth, was that old 
precept, "Watch thy tongue; out of it are the issues of Life!" 
Man is properly an incarnated word: the word that he speaks is 
the man himself. Were eyes put into our head, that we might see, 
or that we might fancy, and plausibly pretend, we had seen? 
Was the tongue suspended there, that it might tell truly what we 
had seen, and make the soul's brother of man; or that it might 
utter vain sounds, jargon, soul-confusing, and so divide man, as by 
enchanting walls of Darkness, from union with man? 

Thou who wearest that cunning, heaven-made organ, a Tongue, 
think well of this. Speak not, I passionately entreat thee, till thy 
thought have silently matured itself, till thou have other than mad 
and mad-making noises to emit : hold thy tongue till some meaning 
lie behind, to set it wagging. 



128 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

Consider the significance of Silence: it is boundless, never by 
meditating to be exhausted, unspeakably profitable to thee ! Cease 
that chaotic hubbub, wherein thy own soul runs to waste, to con- 
fused suicidal dislocation and stupor; out of Silence comes thy 
strength. " Speech is silvern, silence is golden; speech is human, 
silence is divine.' ' 

Fool ! thinkest thou that because no one stands near with parch- 
ment and blacklead to note thy jargon, it therefore dies and is harm- 
less? Nothing dies, nothing can die. No idlest word thou speak- 
est but is a seed cast into Time, and grows through all Eternity ! 
The Recording Angel, consider it well, is no fable, but the truest 
of truths: the paper tablets thou canst burn; of the "iron leaf" 
there is no burning. 

— Thomas Carlyle. 

10. EFFECTIVENESS IN SPEAKING 

While it is absolutely necessary for the orator to master his sub- 
ject and to speak with earnestness, his speech can be made more 
effective by the addition of clearness, brevity and apt illustrations. 

Clearness of statement is of very great importance. It is not 
sufficient to say that there are certain self-evident truths; it is 
more accurate to say that all truth is self-evident. Because truth 
is self-evident, the best service that one can render a truth is to 
state it so clearly that it can be comprehended, needs no argument 
in its support. In debate, therefore, one's first effort should be to 
state his own side so clearly and concisely as to make the principles 
involved easily understood. His second object should be to divest 
his opponent's argument of useless verbiage as to make it stand 
forth clearly; for as truth is self-evident, so error bears upon its 
face its own condemnation. Error needs only to be exposed to be 
overthrown. 

Brevity of statement also contributes to the force of a speaker. 
It is possible so to enfold a truth in long-drawn-out sentences as 
practically to conceal it. The epigram is powerful because it is 
full of meat and short enough to be remembered. To know when 
to stop is almost as important as to know where to begin and how 
to proceed. The ability to condense great thoughts into small 
words and brief sentences is an attrribute of genius. Often one 
lays down a book with the feeling that the author has "said nothing 



SELECTIONS 129 

with elaboration," while in perusing another book one finds a whole 
sermon in a single sentence, or an unanswerable argument couched 
in a well-turned phrase. 

The interrogatory is frequently employed by the orator, and 
when wisely used is irresistible. What dynamic power for instance, 
there is in that question propounded by Christ, "What shall it 
profit a man if he gain the whole world and lose his own soul?" 
Volumes could not have presented so effectively the truth that he 
sought to impress upon his hearers. 

The illustration has no unimportant place in the equipment of 
the orator. We understand a thing more easily when we know 
that it is like something which we have already seen. Illustrations 
may be drawn from two sources — nature and literature — and of 
the two, those from nature have the greater weight. All learning 
is valuable; all history is useful. By knowing what has been we 
can better judge the future ; by knowing how men have acted here- 
tofore we can understand how they will act again in similar* cir- 
cumstances. But people know nature better than they know books, 
and the illustrations drawn from everyday life are the most ef- 
fective. 

If the orator can seize upon something within the sight or hear- 
ing of his audience, — something that comes to his notice at the 
moment and as if not thought of before, — it will add to the effective- 
ness of the illustration. For instance, Paul's speech to the Athen- 
ians derived a large part of its strength from the fact that he called 
attention to an altar near by, erect "to the Unknown God," and 
then proceeded to declare unto them the God whom they ignorantly 
worshiped. 

Abraham Lincoln used scripture quotations very frequently and 
very powerfully. Probably no Bible quotation, or, for that matter, 
no quotation from any book ever has had more influence upon a 
people than the famous quotation made by Lincoln in his Spring- 
field speech of 1858, — "A house divided against itself cannot 
stand. " It is said that he had searched for some time for a phrase 
which would present in the strongest possible way the proposition 
he intended to advance — namely, that the nation could not endure 
half slave and half free. 

It is compliment to a public speaker that the audience should 
discuss what he says rather than his manner of saying it; more 
complimentary that they should remember his arguments, than 



130 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

that they should praise his rhetoric. The orator should seek to 
conceal himself behind his subject. If he presents himself in every 
speech he is sure to become monotonous, if not offensive. If, how- 
ever, he focuses attention upon his subject, he can find an infinite 
number of themes and, therefore, give variety to his speech. 

— William J. Bryan. 

11. CASSIUS INSTIGATING BRUTUS 

Well, honour is the subject of my story. 
I cannot tell what you and other men 
Think of this life, but, for my single self, 
I had as lief not be as live to be 
In awe of such a thing as I myself. 
I was born free as Caesar ; so were you : 
We both have fed as well, and we can both 
^ Endure the winter's cold as well as he: 
For once upon a raw and gusty day, 
The troubled Tiber chafing with her shores, 
Caesar said to me, "Darest thou, Cassius, now 
Leap in with me into this angry flood, 
And swim to yonder point?" Upon the word, 
Accoutred as I was, I plunged in 
And bade him follow : so indeed he did. 
The torrent roar'd, and we did buffet it 
With lusty sinews, throwing it aside 
And stemming it with hearts of controversy; 
But ere we could arrive the point proposed, 
Caesar cried, "Help me, Cassius, or I sink!" 
I, as iEneas our great ancestor 
Did from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder 
The old Anchises bear, so from the waves of Tiber 
Did I the tired Caesar : and this man 
Is now become a god, and Cassius is 
A wretched creature, and must bend his body 
If Caesar carelessly but nod on him. 
He had a fever when he was in Spain, 
And when the fit was on him, I did mark 
How he did shake : 'tis true, this god did shake*; 
His coward lips did from their colour fly, 



SELECTIONS 131 

And that same eye whose bend doth awe the world 

Did lose his lustre : I did hear him groan : 

Ay, and that tongue of his that bade the Romans 

Mark him and write his speeches in their books, 

Alas, it cried, "Give me some drink, Titinius," 

As a sick girl. Ye gods ! it doth amaze me 

A man of such a feeble temper should 

So get the start of the majestic world 

And bear the palm alone. 

Why, man he doth bestride the narrow world 

Like a Colossus, and we petty men 

Walk under his huge legs and peep about 

To find ourselves dishonorable graves. 

Men at some time are masters of their fates : 

The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, 

But in ourselves, that we are underlings. 

Brutus, and Caesar: what should be in that Caesar? 

Why should the name be sounded more than yours? 

Write them together, yours is as fair a name ; 

Sound them, it doth become the mouth as well; 

Weigh them, it is a heavy; conjure with 'em, 

Brutus will start a spirit as soon as Caesar. 

Now, in the names of all the gods at once, 

Upon what meat doth this our Caesar feed, 

That he is grown so great? Age, thou art ashamed! 

Rome, thou hast lost the breed of noble bloods ! 

When went there by an age, since the great flood, 

But it was famed with more than with one man? 

When could they say till now that talk'd of Rome 

That her wide walls encompass 'd but one man? 

Now is it Rome indeed, and room enough, 

When there is in it but one only man. 

0, you and I have heard our fathers say 

There was a Brutus once that would have brook 'd 

The eternal devil to keep his state in Rome 

As easily as a king. 

Julius Caesar, 1, 2. 



132 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

12. SHAKESPEARE'S IMAGINATION 

Shakespeare exceeded all the sons of men in the splendor of his 
imagination. To him the whole world paid tribute, and Nature 
poured her treasures at his feet. In him all races lived again, and 
even those to be were pictured in his brain. 

s He was a man of imagination — that is to say, of genius, and hav- 
ing seen a leaf, and a drop of water, he could construct the forests, 
the rivers and the seas. In his presence all the cataracts would 
fall and foam, the mists rise, the clouds form and float. 

If Shakespeare knew one fact, he knew its kindred and its neigh- 
bors. Looking at a coat of mail, he instantly imagined the society, 
the conditions, that produced it and what it, in turn, produced. 
He saw the castle, the moat, the drawbridge, the lady in the tower, 
and the knightly lover spurring across the plain. He saw the bold 
baron and rude retainer, the trampled serf, and all the glory and 
the grief of feudal life. 

He lived the life of all. He was a citizen of Athens in the days 
of Pericles. He listened to the eager eloquence of the great orators, 
and sat upon the cliffs, and with the tragic poet heard "the multi- 
tudinous laughter of the sea". He saw Socrates thrust the spear 
of question through the shield and heart of falsehood. He was 
present when the great man drank Hemlock, and met the night of 
death, tranquil as a star meets morning. He listened to the peri- 
patetic philosophers, and was unpuzzled by the sophists. He 
watched Phidias as he chiseled shapeless stones to forms of love 
and awe. 

He walked the ways of mighty Rome, and saw great Csesar with 
his legions in the field. He stood with vast and motley throngs, 
and watched the triumphs given to victorious men, followed by 
uncrowned kings, the captured hosts, and all the spoils of ruthless 
war. He heard the shout that shook the Coliseum's roofless walls, 
when from the reeling gladiator's hand the short sword fell, while 
from his bosom gushed the stream of wasted life. 

The imagination had a stage in Shakespeare's brain, whereon 
were set all scenes that lie between the morn of laughter and the 
night of tears, and where his players bodied forth the false and 
true, the joys and griefs, the careless shallows and the tragic deeps 
of universal life. 

Shakespeare was an intellectual ocean, whose waves touched all 



SELECTIONS 133 

the shores of thought; within which were all the tides and waves 
of destiny and will ; over which swept all the storms of fate, ambi- 
tion, and revenge; upon which fell the gloom and darkness of 
despair and death and all the sunlight of content and love, and 
within which was the inverted sky, lit with the eternal stars — an 
intellectual ocean — towards which all rivers ran, and from which 
now the isles and continents of thought receive their dew and rain. 

— Robert G. Ingersoll. 

13. SONG OF THE BULLET 

ft whizzed and whistled along the blurred 

And red-blent ranks, and it nicked the star 
Or an epaulette, as it snarled the word — 

War! 

On it sped — and the lifted wrist 

Of the ensign-bearer stung, and straight 
Dropped at his side as the word was hissed — 

Hate! 

On went the missile — smoothed the blue 
Of a jaunty cap and the curls thereof, 
Cooing, soft as a dove might do — 

Love! 

Sang! — sang on! — sang hate — sang war — 

Sang love, in sooth, till it needs must cease, 
Hushed in the heart it was questing for — 

Peace ! 
— James Whitcomb Riley. 

14. DANIEL O'CONNELL 

I do not think I exaggerate when I say that never since God 
made Demosthenes has He made a man better fitted for a great 
work than Daniel 'Connell. 

You may say that I am partial to my hero, but John Randolph 
of Roanoke, who hated an Irishman almost as much as he did a 
Yankee, when he got to London and heard 'Connell, the old slave- 
holder threw up his hands and exclaimed, ' ' This is the man, those 
are the lips, the most eloquent that speak English in my day, ' ' and 
I think he was right. 
10 



134 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

Webster could address a bench of judges; Everett could charm 
a college; Choate could deluge a jury; Clay could magnetize a 
senate ; and Tom Corwin could hold the mob in his right hand, but 
no one of these men could do more than this one thing. The won- 
der about O'Connell was that he could out-talk Corwin, he could 
charm a college better than Everett, and leave Henry Clay himself 
far behind in magnetizing a senate. 

It has been my privilege to have heard all the great orators of 
America who have become singularly famed about the world's cir- 
cumference. I know what was the majesty of Webster; I know 
what it was to melt under the magnetism of Henry Clay; I have 
seen eloquence in the iron logic of Calhoun; but O'Connell was 
Webster, Clay, and Calhoun in one. Before the courts, logic; at 
the bar of the senate, unanswerable and dignified ; on the platform, 
grace, wit and pathos ; before the masses, a whole man. Emerson 
says, ' ' There is no true eloquence, unless there is a man behind the 
speech." Daniel O'Connell was listened to because all England 
and Ireland knew that there was a man behind the speech, — one 
who could neither be bought, bullied, nor cheated. 

When I was in Naples, I asked Thomas Fowell Buxton, "Is 
Daniel O'Connell an honest man?" "As honest a man as ever 
breathed, ' ' said he, and then he told me the following story : 
"When, in 1830, O'Connell first entered Paliament, the anti-slavery 
cause was so weak that it had only Lushington and myself to speak 
for it, and we agreed that when he spoke I should cheer him up, 
and when I spoke he should cheer me, and these were the only 
cheers we ever got. O'Connell came with one Irish member to 
support him. A large party of members (I think Buxton said 
twenty-seven) whom we called the West India interest, the Bristol 
party, the slave party, went to him, saying, 'O'Connell, at last you 
are in the House, with one helper. If you never go down to Free- 
mason's Hall with Buxton and Brougham, here are twenty-seven 
votes for you on every Irish question. If you work with those 
Abolitionists, count us always against you.' " 

It was a terrible temptation. How many a so-called statesman 
would have yielded! O'Connell said, "Gentlemen, God knows I 
speak for the saddest people the sun sees ; but may my right hand 
forget its cunning and my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth if 
to help Ireland — even Ireland — I forget the negro one single hour. ' ' 
"From that day," said Buxton, "Lushington and I never went 
into the lobby that 'Connell did not follow us. ' ' 



SELECTIONS 135 

An then, besides his irreproachable character he had what is half 
the power of a popular orator, he had a majestic presence. A little 

'Connell would have been no 'Connell at all. In youth he had 
the brow of a Jupiter and a stature of Apollo. Sidney Smith says 
of Lord John Russell's five feet, when he went down to Yorkshire 
after the Reform Bill had passed, the stalwart hunters of Yorkshire 
exclaimed, "What, that little shrimp, he carry the Reform Bill?" 
"No, no/' said Smith, "he was a large man, but the labors of the 
bill shrunk him." 

I remember the story Russell Lowell tells of Webster; when a 
year or two before his death, the Whig party thought of dissolution, 
Webster came home from Washington and went down to Faneuil 
Hall to protest, and four thousand of his fellow Whigs came out; 
drawing himself up to his loftiest proportion, his brow charged 
with thunder, before the listening thousands, he said, "Gentlemen, 

1 am a Whig, a Massachusetts Whig, a Faneuil Hall Whig, a revo- 
lutionary Whig, a constitution Whig. If you break up the Whig 
party, sir; where am I to go?" And, says Lowell, "We all held 
our breath, thinking where he could go. But if he had been five 
feet three, we should have said, 'Who cares where you go?' " 

Well, O'Connell had all that; and true nature seemed to be 
speaking all over him. It would have been a pleasure even to look 
at him if he had not spoken at all, and all you thought of was a 
greyhound 

And then he had what so few American speakers have, a voice 
that sounded the gamut. I heard him (O'Connell) once in Exeter 
Hall say, ' ' Americans, I send my voice careering across the Atlantic 
like a thunder-storm, to tell the slave-holders of the Carolinas that 
God's thunderbolts are hot, and to remind the negro that the dawn 
of his redemption is drawing near," and I seemed to hear his voice 
reverberating and re-echoing back to Boston from the Rocky 
Mountains. 

And then, with the slightest possible flavor of an Irish brogue, 
he would tell a story that would make all Exeter Hall laugh, and 
the next moment there would be tears in his voice, like an old song, 
and five thousand men would be in tears. And all the while no 
effort — he seemed only breathing. 

"As effortless as woodland nooks 
Send violets up and paint them blue." 

—Wendell Phillips. 



136 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

15. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 

(From a lecture delivered in England on "The Mormons.") 

I really don't care for money. I only travel round, to see the 
world and to exhibit my clothes. These clothes I have on were a 
great success in America. (He wore a fashionably cut dress suit.) 

How often do large fortunes ruin young men ! I should like to 
be ruined, but I can get on very well as I am. 

I am not an artist. I 've always loved pictures. I could draw on 
wood at a very tender age. When a mere child I once drew a small 
cart-load of raw turnips over a wooden bridge. — The people of the 
village noticed me. I drew their attention. They said I had a 
future before me. Up to that time I had an idea it was behind me. 

Time passed on. It always does, by the way. You may possibly 
have noticed that Time passes on. — It is a kind of way Time has. 

I became a man. I haven't distinguished myself at all as an 
artist — but I have always been more or less mixed up with art. I 
have an uncle who takes photographs — and I have a servant who — 
takes anything he can get his hands on. 

When I was in Rome — Rome in New York State, I mean — a dis- 
tinguished sculpist wanted to sculp me. But I said "No." I saw 
through the designing man. My model once in his hands — he would 
have flooded the market with my busts — and I couldn 't stand it to see 
everybody going round with a bust of me. Everybody would want 
one of course — and wherever I should go I should meet the edu- 
cated classes with my bust, taking it home to their families. This 
would be more than my modesty could stand— and I should have to 
return to America — where my creditors are. 

I like art. I admire dramatic art — although I failed as an actor. 
It was in my school-boy days that I failed as an actor. — The 
play was "The Ruins of Pompeii." — I played the ruins. It was 
not a very successful performance — but it was better than the 
1 ' Burning Mountain. ' ' He was not good. He was a bad Vesuvius. 

The remembrance often makes me ask — "Where are the boys of 
my youth?" I assure you this is not a conundrum. Some are 
amongst you here — some in America — some are in jail. 

A gentleman friend of mine came to me one day with tears in 
his eyes. I said, "Why these weeps?" He said he had a mort- 
gage on his farm — and wanted to borrow £200. I lent him the 
money — and he went away. Some time afterward he returned with 



SELECTIONS 137 

more tears. He said he must leave me forever. I ventured to 
remind him of the £200 he borrowed. He was much cut up. I 
thought I would not be hard upon him — so I told him I would 
throw off £100. He brightened — shook my hand — and said — ' ' Old 
friend — I won 't allow you to outdo me in liberality — I '11 throw off 
the other hundred. ' ' 

As a manager I was always rather more successful than as an 
actor. 

Some years ago I engaged a celebrated Living American Skeleton 
for a tour through Australia. He was the thinnest man I ever 
saw. He was a splendid skeleton. He didn't weigh anything 
scarcely — and I said to myself — the people of Australia will flock 
to see this tremendous curiosity. It was a long voyage — as you 
know — from New York to Melbourne — and to my utter surprise 
the skeleton had no sooner got out to sea than he commenced eating 
in the most horrible manner. He had never been on the ocean 
before — and he said it agreed with him — I thought so! — I never 
saw a man eat so much in my life. Beef, mutton, pork — he swal- 
lowed them all like a shark — and between meals he was often dis- 
covered behind barrels eating hard-boiled eggs. The result was 
that, when we reached Melbourne, this infamous skeleton weighed 
sixty-four pounds more than I did! 

I thought I was ruined — but I wasn't. I took him on to Cali- 
fornia — another big sea voyage — and when I got him to San Fran- 
cisco I exhibited him as a fat man. 

This story hasn 't anything to do with my entertainment, I know, 
— but one of the principal features of my entertainment is that it 
contains so many things that don 't have anything to do with it. 

— Artemus Ward. 

16. SECOND INAUGURAL 

Fellow Countrymen : At this second appearing to take the oath 
of the Presidential office, there is less occasion for extended address 
than there was at first. Then a statement somewhat in detail of a 
course to be pursued seemed fitting and proper. Now at the ex- 
piration of four years, during which public declarations have been 
constantly called forth on every point and phase of the great contest 
which absorbs the attention and engrosses the energies of the nation, 
little that is new could be presented. On the occasion correspond- 



138 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

ing to this, four years ago, all thoughts were anxiously directed to 
an impending civil war. All dreaded it ; all sought to avoid it. 

While the inaugural address was being delivered from, this place, 
devoted altogether to saving the Union without war, insurgent 
agents were in the city seeking to destroy it with war, seeking to 
dissolve the Union and divide the effects of negotiation. Both 
parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather 
than let the nation survive, and the other would accept war rather 
than let it perish, and the war came. One-eighth of the whole 
population were colored slaves, not distributed generally over the 
Union, but localized in the Southern part of it. These slaves 
constituted a peculiar and powerful interest. All knew that this 
interest was somehow the cause of the war. To strengthen, per- 
petuate, and extend this interest was the object for which the in- 
surgents would rend the Union by war, while the Government 
claimed no right to do more than to restrict the territorial enlarge- 
ment of it. Neither party expected for the war the magnitude or 
the duration which it has already attained. Neither anticipated 
that the cause might cease with or even before the conflict itself 
should cease. Each looked for an easier triumph, and a result less 
fundamental and astounding. 

Both read the same Bible and prayed to the same God, and each 
invoked His aid against the other. It may seem strange that any 
men should dare to ask a just God's assistance in wringing their 
bread from the sweat of other men's faces; but let us judge not, 
that we be not judged. The prayers of both could not be answered ; 
that of neither has been answered fully. The Almighty has His 
own purpose. 

Fondly do we hope, fervently do we pray, that this mighty 
scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that 
it continue until all the wealth piled by the bondsmen's two hundred 
and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every 
drop of blood drawn with the leash shall be paid by another drawn 
with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still it 
must be said, "the judgments of the Lord are true and righteous 
altogether." With malice toward none, with charity for all, with 
firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive 
on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to 
care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and 
his orphan, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and 
lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations. 

— A. Lincoln. 



SELECTIONS 139 

17. CROSSING THE BAR 

Sunset and evening star, one clear call for me ! 
And may there be no moaning of the bar, when I put out to sea, 
But such a tide as moving seems asleep, too full for sound and foam, 
When that which drew from out the boundless deep turns again 
home. 

Twilight and evening bell, and after that the dark ! 

And may there be no sadness of farewell, when I embark ; 

For tho' from out our bourne of Time and Place the flood may 

bear me far, 
I hope to see my Pilot face to face when I have crossed the bar. 

— Lord Tennyson. 

18. NAPOLEON 

A little while ago I stood at the grave of Napoleon — a mag- 
nificent tomb of gilt and gold, fit almost for a deity, dead, and 
gazed upon the sarcophagus of rare and nameless marble, where 
rest, at last, the ashes of that restless man. I leaned over the bal- 
ustrade, and thought about the career of the greatest soldier of the 
modern world. I saw him walking upon the banks of the Seine, 
contemplating suicide; I saw him at Toulon; I saw him putting 
down the mob on the streets of Paris ! I saw him at the head of the 
army of Italy ; I saw him crossing the bridge at Lodi, with the tri- 
color in his hand ; I saw him in the shadows of the Pyramids ; I saw 
him conquer the Alps and mingle the eagle of France with the 
eagles of the crags ; I saw him at Marengo, at Ulm, and Austerlitz. 
I saw him in Russia, when the infantry of the snows and the cav- 
alry of the wild beasts scattered his legions like winter's withered 
leaves. I saw him at Leipsic in defeat and disaster, driven back 
upon Paris before a million bayonets, plucked like a wild beast, 
banished to Elba. I saw him on the frightful field of Waterloo, 
where chance and fate combined to wreck the fortunes of their 
former king. And I saw him at lonely St. Helena, with his hands 
crossed behind him, looking out upon the sad and solemn sea. 

And I thought of the widows and orphans he had made; of the 
tears that had been shed for his glory, and of the only woman who 
ever loved him, pushed from his heart by the cold hand of ambition. 



140 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

And I said I would rather have been a French peasant, and worn 
wooden shoes. I would rather have lived in a hut, with a vine 
growing over the door and the grapes growing purple in the amor- 
ous kisses of the autumn sun. I would rather have been that poor 
peasant, with my wife by my side knitting as the day died out of 
the sky, with my children upon my knees and their arms about me. 
I would rather have been this man and gone down to the tongueless 
silence of the dreamless dust, than to have been the imperial per- 
sonation of force and murder known as Napoleon the Great. 

— Robert G. Ingersoll. 

19. "AMERICA FOR ME" 

'Tis fine to see the Old World, and travel up and down 
Among the famous palaces and cities of renown, 
To admire the crumbly castles and the statues of the kings, — 
But now I think I 've had enough of antiquated things. 

So it 's home again, and home again, America for me ! 
My heart is turning home again, and there I long to be, 
In the land of youth and freedom beyond the ocean bars, 
Where the air is full of sunlight and the flag is full of stars. 

Oh, London is a man 's town, there 's power in the air ; 

And Paris is a woman's town, with flowers in her hair; 

And it 's sweet to dream in Venice, and it 's great to study Rome ; 

But when it comes to living there is no place like home. 

I like the German fir- woods, in green battalions drilled ; 
I like the garden of Versailles with flashing fountains filled ; 
But, oh, to take your hand, my dear, and ramble for a day 
In the friendly western woodland where Nature has her way ! 

I know that Europe 's wonderful, yet something seems to lack : 
The Past is too much with her, and the people looking back. 
But the glory of the Present is to make the Future free, — 
We love our land for what she is and what she is to be. 

Oh, it's home again, and home again, America for me! 
I want a ship that 's westward bound to plough the rolling sea, 
To the blessed Land of Room Enough beyond the ocean bars, 
Where the air is full of sunlight and the flag is full of stars. 

—Henry Van Dyke. 



SELECTIONS 141 

20. SANDALPHON 

Have you read in the Talmud of old, 
In the Legends the Rabbins have told 

Of the limitless realms of the air, 
Have you read it, — the marvelous story 
Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Glory, 

Sandalphon, the Angel of Prayer? 

How, erect, at the outermost gate 
Of the City Celestial he waits, 

With his feet on the ladder of light, 
That, crowded with angels unnumbered, 
By Jacob was seen, as he slumbered 

Alone in the desert at night? 

The Angels of Wind and of Fire 
Chant only one hymn, and expire 

With the song's irresistible stress; 
Expire in their rapture and wonder, 
As harp-strings are broken asunder 

By the music they throb to express. 

But serene in the rapturous throng, 
Unmoved by the rush of the song, 

With eyes unimpassioned and slow, 
Among the dead angels, and deathless 
Sandalphon stands, listening breathless 

To sounds that ascend from below; — 

From the spirits on earth that adore, 
From the souls that entreat and implore 

In the fervor and passion of prayer; 
From the hearts that are broken with losses, 
And weary with dragging the crosses 

Too heavy for mortals to bear. 

And he gathers the prayers as he stands, 
And they change into flowers in his hands, 
Into garlands of purple and red ; 



142 PBINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

And beneath the great arch of the portal, 
Through the streets of the City Immortal 
Is wafted the fragrance the> snea. 

It is but a legend, I know, — 
A fable, a phantom, a show, 

Of the ancient Rabbinical lore; 
Yet the old medieval tradition, 
The beautiful, strange superstition, 

But haunts me and holds me the more. 

When I look from my window at night, 
And the welkin above is all white, 

All throbbing and panting with stars, 
Among them majestic is standing 
Sandalphon the angel expanding 

His pinions in nebulous bars. 

And the legend, I feel, is a part 

Of the hunger and thirst of the heart, 

The frenzy and fire of the brain, 
That grasps at the fruitage forbidden, 
The golden pomegranates of Eden, 

To quiet its fever and pain. 

— Henry W. Longfellow. 

21. OUT AT OLD AUNT MARY'S 

Wasn't it pleasant, brother mine, 
In those old days of the lost sunshine 
Of youth — when the Saturday's chores were through, 
And the " Sunday's wood" in the kitchen, too, 
And we went visiting, "me and you," 
Out to Old Aunt Mary's? 

It all comes back so clear to-day ! 
Though I am as bald as you are gray — 
Out by the barn-lot, and down the lane, 
We patter along in the dust again, 
As light as the tips of the drops of the rain, 
Out to Old Aunt Mary's! 



SELECTIONS 143 

We cross the pasture, and through the wood 
Where the old gray snag of the poplar stood, 
Where the hammering red-heads hopped awry, 
And the buzzard raised in the clearing sky, 
And lolled and circled, as we went by, 
Out to Old Aunt Mary's. 

And then in the dust of the road again; 
And the teams we met, and the countrymen; 
And the long highwaj 7 , with sunshine spread 
As thick as butter on country bread, 
Our cares behind, and our hearts ahead 
Out to Old Aunt Mary's. 

Why, I see her now in the open door, 
Where the little gourds grew up the sides, and o'er 
The clapboard roof ! — And her f ace — ah, me ! 
Wasn't it good for a boy to see — 
And wasn't it good for a boy to be 
Out to Old Aunt Mary's? 



And 0, my brother, so far away, 
This is to tell you she waits today 
To welcome us: — Aunt Mary fell 
Asleep this morning, whispering, "Tell 
The boys to come ! ' ' And all is well 
Out to Old Aunt Mary's. 

— James Whitcomb Riley. 

22. MAKERS OF THE FLAG 

Delivered on Flag Day, 1914, before the employees of the De- 
partment of the Interior, Washington, D. C, by Franklin K. Lane, 
Secretary of the Interior. 

This morning, as I passed into the Land Office, The Flag dropped 
me a most cordial salutation, and from its rippling folds I heard it 
say, "Good-morning, Mr. Flag-Maker." 

"I beg your pardon, Old Glory," I said, "aren't you mistaken? 



144 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

I am not the President of the United States, nor a member of 
Congress, nor even a general in the army. I am only a Government 
clerk. " 

"I greet you again, Mr. Flag-Maker," replied the gay voice. 
"I know you well. You are the man who worked in the swelter 
of yesterday straightening out the tangle of that farmer's home- 
stead in Idaho, or perhaps you found the mistake in that Indian 
contract in Oklahoma, or helped to clear that patent for the hopeful 
inventor in New York, or pushed the opening of that new ditch in 
Colorado, or made that mine in Illinois more safe, or brought relief 
to the old soldier in Wyoming. No matter ; whichever one of these 
beneficial individuals you happen to be, I give you greeting, Mr. 
Flag-Maker." 

I was about to pass on, when The Flag stopped me with these 
words : — 

"Yesterday the President spoke a word that made happier the 
future of ten million peons in Mexico ; but that act looms no larger 
on the flag than the struggle which the boy in Georgia is making 
to win the Corn Club prize this summer. 

"Yesterday the Congress spoke a word which will open the door 
of Alaska; but the mother in Michigan worked from surise until 
far into the night, to give her boy an education. She, too, is mak- 
ing the flag. 

"Yesterday we made a new law to prevent financial panics, and 
yesterday, maybe, a school teacher in Ohio taught his first letters 
to a boy who will one day write a song that will give cheer to the 
millions of our race. We are all making the flag. ' ' 

"But," I said impatiently, "these people were only working!" 

Then came a great shout from The Flag: — 

' ' The work that we do is the making of the flag. 

"lam not the flag ; not at all. I am but its shadow. 

"I am whatever you make me, nothing more. 

"I am your belief in yourself, your dream of what a people may 
become. 

"I live a changing life, a life of moods and passions, of heart- 
breaks and tired muscles. 

"Sometimes I am strong with pride, when men do an honest 
work, fitting the rails together truly. 

1 ' Sometimes I droop, for then purpose has gone from me, and 
cynically I play the coward. 



SELECTIONS 145 

"Sometimes I am loud, garish, and full of that ego that blasts 
judgment. 

1 ' But always I am all that you hope to be, and have the courage 
to try for. 

"I am song and fear, struggle and panic, and ennobling hope. 

"I am the day's work of the weakest man, and the largest dream 
of the most daring. 

"I am the Constitution and the courts, statutes and the statute 
makers, soldier and dreadnaught, drayman and street sweep, cook, 
counselor, and clerk. 

"I am the battle of yesterday, and the mistake of tomorrow. 

1 ' I am the mystery of the men who do without knowing why. 

"I am the clutch of an idea, and the reasoned purpose of res- 
olution. 

1 ' I am no more than what you believe me to be and I am all that 
you believe I can be. 

"I am what you make me, nothing more. 

"I swing before your eyes as a bright gleam of color, a symbol 
of yourself, the pictured suggestion of that big thing which makes 
this nation. My stars and my stripes are your dream and your 
labors. They are bright with cheer, brilliant with courage, firm 
with faith, because you have made them so out of your hearts. 
For you are the makers of the flag and it is well that you glory 
in the making." 

— Franklin K. Lane. 

23. THE DAY IS DONE 

The day is done, and the darkness 

Falls from the wings of Night, 
As a feather is wafted downward 

From an eagle in his flight. 

I see the lights of the village 

Gleam through the rain and the mist, 

And a feeling of sadness comes o'er me 
That my soul cannot resist : 

A feeling of sadness and longing, 
That is not akin to pain, 



146 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

And resembles sorrow only 
As the mist resembles the rain. 



Come, read to me some poem, 
Some simple and heartfelt lay, 

That shall soothe this restless feeling, 
And banish the thoughts of day. 

Not from the grand old masters, 
Not from the bards sublime, 

Whose distant footsteps echo 
Through the corridors of Time. 

For, like strains of martial music, 
Their mighty thoughts suggest 

Life's endless toil and endeavor; 
And to-night I long for rest. 

Read from some humbler poet, 

Whose songs gushed from his heart, 

As showers from the clouds of summer, 
Or tears from the eyelids start; 

Who, through long days of labor, 

And nights devoid of ease, 
Still heard in his soul the music, 

Of wonderful melodies. 

Such songs have power to quiet 

The restless pulse of care, 
And come like the benediction 

That follows after prayer. 

Then read from the treasured volume 

The poem of thy choice, 
And lend to the rhyme of the poet 

The beautv of thv voice. 



SELECTIONS 147 

And the night shall be filled with music, 

And the cares that infest the day, 
Shall fold their tents, like the Arabs, 

And silently steal away. 

— Henry W. Longfellow. 



24. BIBLE 

Then shall the King say unto them on his right hand, Come ye 
blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom of heaven prepared for 
you from the foundation of the world: 

For I was an hungered and ye gave me meat : I was thirsty, and 
ye gave me drink ; I was a stranger, and ye took me in : 

Naked, and ye clothed me : I was sick, and ye visited me : I was 
in prison, and ye came unto me. 

Then shall the righteous answer him, saying, Lord, when saw we 
thee an hungered and fed thee? or thirsty, and gave thee drink? 

When saw we thee a stranger, and took thee in? or naked, and 
clothed thee? 

Or when saw we thee sick, or in prison, and came unto thee? 

And the King shall answer and say unto them, Verily, I say unto 
you, Inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the least of these my 
brethren, ye have done it unto me. 

Then shall he say also to them on the left hand, Depart from me, 
ye cursed, into everlasting fire, prepared for the devil and his 
angels : 

For I was an hungered, and ye gave me no meat : I was thirsty, 
and ye gave me no drink: 

I was a stranger, and ye took me not in : naked, and ye clothed 
me not: sick, and in prison, and ye visited me not. 

Then shall they also answer him, saying, Lord, when saw we thee 
an hungered, or a thirst, or a stranger, or naked, or sick, or in prison, 
and did not minister unto thee? 

Then shall he answer them saying, Verily, I say unto you, Inas- 
much as ye did it not to one of the least of these, ye did it not to me. 

And these shall go away into everlasting punishment: but the 
righteous into life eternal. 

—Matthew 25, 34-^6. 



l =? j 



148 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

25. BIBLE 

Let not your hearts be troubled: ye believe in God, believe also 
in me. 

In my Father's house are many mansions: if it were not so, I 
would have told you. I go to prepare a place for you. 

And if I go, and prepare a place for you, I will come again, and 
receive you unto myself ; that where I am there ye may be also. 

And whither I go ye know, and the way ye know. 

—John 14:1-4. 



26. AMERICA, THE BEAUTIFUL 

(Tune: The Son of God goes forth to war.) 
Oh beautiful for spacious skies; 

For amber waves of grain; 
For purple mountain majesties 
Above the fruited plain! 

America! America! 
God shed his grace on thee, 
And crown thy good with brotherhood 
From sea to shining sea. 

Oh beautiful for pilgrim feet, 

Whose stern impassioned stress, 
A thoroughfare for freedom beat 

Across the wilderness. 
America! America! 

God mend thine every flaw; 
Confirm thy soul in self control: 

Thy liberty in law. 

Oh beautiful for heroes proved 

In liberating strife; 
Who more than self their country loved, 

And mercy, more than life. 
America! America! 

May God thy gold refine, 
'Till all success be nobleness, 

And every gain divine ! 



SELECTIONS 149 

Oh beautiful for patriot dream 

That sees beyond the years 
Thine alabaster cities gleam 
Undimmed by human tears ! 

America ! America ! 
God shed his grace on thee; 
And crown thy good with brotherhood, 
From sea to shining sea! 

— Katherine Lee Bates. 



27. WHEN THE GREEN GITS BACK IN THE TREES 

In spring, when the green gits back in the trees, 

And the sun comes out and stays, 
And yer boots pull on with a good tight squeeze, 

And you think of yer barefoot days; 
When you ort to work and you want to not, 

And you and yer wife agrees 
It's time to spade up the garden plot, 

When the green gits back in the trees — 
Well! work is the least o' my idees 
When the green, you know, gits back in the trees ! 

When the green gits back in the trees, and bees 

Is a-buzzin' aroun' ag'in 
In that kind of a lazy go-as-you-please 

Old gait they bum roun' in; 
When the ground 's all bald where the hay-rick stood, 

And the crick's riz, and the breeze 
Coaxes the bloom in the old dogwood, 

And the green gits back in the trees, — 
I like, as I say, in sich scenes as these, 
The time when the green gits back in the trees ! 

When the whole tail-feathers o' Winter-time 

Is all pulled out and gone! 
And the sap it thaws and begins to climb, 

And the swet it starts out on 

11 



150 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

A feller's forred, a-gittin' down 

At the old spring on his knees — 
I kinda like jest a-loaferin' roun' 

"When the green gits back in the trees — 
Jest a-potterin' roun' as I — durn — please — 
When the green, you know, gits back in the trees ! 

— James W. Riley. 



28. THE BRAVEST BATTLE 

The bravest battle that ever was fought ! 

Shall I tell you where and when? 
On the maps of the world you will find it not ; 
'Twas fought by the mothers of men. 

Nay, not with cannon or battle shot, 

With sword or nobler pen! 
Nay, not with eloquent word or thought, 

From mouths of wonderful men. 

But deep in a walled-up woman's heart, 

A woman that would not yield, 
But bravely, silently bore her part — 

Lo ! there is that battlefield. 

No marshalling troop, no bivouac song; 

No banner to gleam and wave; 
But, oh ! these battles they last so long, 

From babyhood to grave. 

Yet, faithful still as a bridge of stars, 
She fights in her walled-up town — 

Fights on and on in the endless wars; 
Then, silent, unseen, goes down. 

ye, with banners and battle shot, 
And soldiers to shout and praise, 

1 tell you the kingliest victories fought 
Are fought in those silent ways. 



SELECTIONS 151 

spotless woman in a world of shame ! 
With splendid and silent scorn, 

Go back to God as white as you came, 
The kingliest warrior born. 

— Joaquin Miller. 

29. SHYLOCK'S HATRED OF ANTONIO 

How like a fawning publican he looks ! 

1 hate him for he is a Christian ; 
But more for that in low simplicity 

He lends out money gratis and brings down 
The rate of usance here with us in Venice. 
If I can catch him once upon the hip, 
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him. 
He hates our sacred nation; and he rails, 
Even there where merchants most do congregate, 
On me, my bargains, and my well-won thrift, 
Which he calls interest. Cursed be my tribe, 
If I forgive him! 

— Merchant of Venice, i., 3. 

30. SHYLOCK TO ANTONIO 

You came to me, and you say, 

1 Shylock, we would have moneys : ' ' you say so ; 
You, that did void your rheum upon your beard, 
And foot me as you spurn a stranger cur 
Over your threshold : moneys is your suit. 
What should I say to you ? Should I not say 

"Hath a dog money? is it possible 
A cur can lend three thousand ducats?" Or 
Shall I bend low and in a bondsman's key, 
With bated breath and whispering humbleness, 
Say this, — 

"Fair sir, you spit on me Wednesday last; 
You spurn 'd me such a day ; another time 
You call 'd me dog ; and for these courtesies 
I'll lend you thus much moneys?" 

— Merchant of Venice, i., 3. 



152 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

31. SHYLOCK'S JUSTIFICATION 

He hath disgraced me, and hindered me half a million ! laughed 
at my losses, mocked at my gains, scorned my nation, thwarted my 
bargains, cooled my friends, heated mine enemies; and what's his 
reason ? I am a Jew. Hath not a Jew eyes ? hath not a Jew hands, 
organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions? fed with the same 
food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, 
healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same winter 
and summer, as a Christian is ? If you prick us, do we not bleed ? 
If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not 
die? and if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? If we are like 
you in the rest, we will resemble you in that. If a Jew wrong a 
Christian, what is his humility? Revenge. If a Christian wrong 
a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example ? Why, 
revenge. 

— Merchant of Venice, iii, 1. 



32. HOW DID YOU DIE? 

Did you tackle the trouble that came your way 

With a resolute heart and cheerful, 
Or hide your face from the light of day 

With a craven soul and fearful? 
0, a trouble 's a ton or a trouble 's an ounce 

A trouble is what you make it, 
It isn't the fact that you're hurt that counts 

But only how did you take it. 

And tho' you be smitten to earth, what's that 

Come up with a smiling face, 
It's nothing against you to fall down flat 

But to lie there, that's the disgrace. 
The harder you're hit why the higher you'll bounce 

Be proud of your blackened eye, 
It isn't the fact that you're licked that counts 

But how did you fight and why? 



SELECTIONS 153 

And tho' you be done to death, what then, 

If you battled the best that you could, 
If you played your part in the world of men 

Why the Critic will say that 'twas good. 
Death comes with a crawl and comes with a pounce 

But whether he's slow or spry, 
It isn't the fact that your dead that counts, 

But only how did you die. 

— Edmund Vance Cook. 



33. GOD GIVE US MEN 

God give us men, a time like this demands 

Great hearts, strong minds, true faith and ready hands ; 

Men whom the lust of office cannot kill; 
Men whom the spoils of office cannot buy; 
Men who possess opinions and a will; 
Men who have honor ; men who will not lie ; 

Men who can stand before a demagogue, 
And brave his treacherous flatteries without winking ; 
Tall men, sun-crowned, who live above the foe, 
In public duty, and in private thinking; 

For while the rabble with its thumb-worn creeds, 
Its large professions, and its little deeds 
Mingle in selfish strife, lo ! Freedom weeps, 
Wrong rules the world and waiting Justice sleeps. 



34. SPEECH AT LIVERPOOL 

It is a matter of very little consequence to me, personally, whether 
I speak here to-night or not. But one thing is very certain, if you 
do permit me to speak here to-night, you will hear very plain talk- 
ing. You will not find me to be a man that dared to speak about 
Great Britain three thousand miles off, and then is afraid to speak 
to Great Britain when he stands on her shores. And if I do not 
mistake the tone and temper of Englishmen, they would rather have 



154 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

a man who opposes them in a manly way than a sneak that agrees 
with them in an unmanly way. Now, if I can carry you with me 
by sound convictions, I shall be immensely glad; but if I cannot 
carry you with me by facts and sound arguments, I do not wish 
you to go with me at all ; and all that I ask is simply fair play. 

Those of you who are kind enough to wish to favor my speaking, 
— and you will observe that my voice is slightly husky, from having 
spoken almost every night in succession for some time past, — those 
who wish to hear me will do me the kindness simply to sit still and 
to keep still; and I and my friends the Secessionists will make all 
the noise 

The power to create riches is just as much a part of the Anglo- 
Saxon virtues as the power to create good order and social safety. 
The things required for prosperous labor, prosperous manufactures, 
and prosperous commerce are three; first, liberty; second, liberty; 
third, liberty. . . . There must be freedom among producers ; there 
must be freedom among distributors ; there must be freedom among 
customers. It may not have occurred to you that it makes any 
difference what one's customers are, but it does in all regular and 
prolonged business. The condition of the customer determines 
how much he will buy, determines of what sort he will buy. Poor 
and ignorant people buy little, and that of the poorest kind. The 
richest and the intelligent, having the more means to buy, buy the 
most and always buy the best. It is a necessity of every manu- 
facturing and commercial people that their customers should be 
very wealthy and intelligent. Let us put the subject before you in 
the familiar light of your own local experience. To whom do the 
tradesmen of Liverpool sell the most goods at the highest profit? 
To the ignorant and poor, or to the educated and prosperous ? The 
poor man buys simply for his body ; he buys food, he buys clothing, 
he buys fuel, he buys lodging. His rule is to buy the least and the 
cheapest that he can; he brings away as little as he can; and he 
buys for the least he can. ... A savage is a man of one story, and 
that one story a cellar. "When a man begins to be civilized he raises 
another story. "When you Christianize and civilize the man, you 
put story upon story, for you develop faculty after faculty, and 
you have to supply every story with your productions. The 
savage is a man one story deep ; the civilized man is thirty stories 
deep. Now, if you go to a lodging house where there are three or 
four men, your sales to them may, no doubt, be worth something; 



SELECTIONS . 155 

but if you go to a lodging house like some of those I saw in Edin- 
burgh which seemed to contain about twenty stories, every story of 
which is full, and all who occupy buy of you, which is the better 
customer ,the man who is drawn out or the man who is pinched 
up ! . . . . When depressed and backward people demand that they 
may have a chance to rise, it is a duty for humanity's sake, it is a 
duty for the highest moral motives, to sympathize with them; but 
besides all these there is a material and an interested reason why 
you should sympathize with them. Pounds and pence join with 
conscience and with honor in this design. ... It is said that your 
chief want is cotton. I deny it. Your chief want is customers. 
You could turn out fourfold as much as you do, if you only had 
the market to sell in. That nation is the best customer that is 
freest, because freedom works prosperity, industry, and wealth. 
Great Britain, then, aside from moral considerations, has a direct 
commercial and pecuniary interest in the liberty, civilization, and 
wealth of every nation on the globe. 

— Henry Ward Beecher. 

35. THE HOMES OF THE PEOPLE 

I went to Washington the other day, and I stood on the Capitol 
Hill ; my heart beat quick as I looked at the towering marble of my 
country's Capitol and a mist gathered in my eyes as I thought of 
its tremendous significance, of the armies and the treasury, and the 
judges and the President, and the Congress and the courts, and all 
that was gathered there. And I felt that the sun in all its course 
could not look down on a better sight than that majestic home of a 
republic that had taught the world is best lessons of liberty. And 
I felt that if honor and widsom and justice abided therein, the 
world would at least owe that great house in which the ark of the 
covenant of my country is lodged, its final uplifting and its re- 
generation. 

Two days afterward I went to visit a friend in the country, a 
modest man, with a quiet country home. It was just a simple, un- 
pretentious house, set about with big trees, encircled in meadow and 
field rich with the promise of harvest. The fragrance of the pink 
and holly-hock in the front yard was mingled with the aroma of 
the orchard and of the gardens, and resonant with the cluck of 
poultry and the hum of bees. 



156 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

Inside was quiet, cleanliness, thrift, and comfort. There was 
the old clock that had welcomed, in steady measure, every new- 
comer to the family, that had ticked the solemn requiem of the dead, 
and had kept company with the watcher at the bedside. There 
was the big, restful beds and the old open fireplace, and the old 
family bible, thumbed with the fingers of hands long since still, 
and wet with the tears of eyes long since closed, holding the simple 
annals of the family and the heart and the conscience of the home. 

Outside, there stood my friend, the master, a simple, upright 
man, with no mortgage on his roof, no lien on his growing crops, 
master of his land and master of himself. There was his old father, 
an aged trembling man, but happy in the heart and home of his son. 
And as they started to their home, the hands of the old man went 
down on the young man's shoulder, lying there the unspeakable 
blessing of the honored and grateful father and ennobling it with 
the knighthood of the fifth commandment. 

And as they reached the door the old mother came with the 
sunset falling fair on her face, and lighting up her deep, patient 
eyes, while her lips, trembling with the rich music of her heart, 
bade her husband and son welcome to their home. Beyond was 
the house-wife, busy with her household cares, clean of heart and 
conscience, the buckler and helpmate of her husband. Down the 
lane came the children, trooping home after the cows, seeking as 
truant birds do the quiet of their home nest. 

And I saw the night come down on that house, falling gently 
as the wings of the unseen dove. And the old man — while a 
startled bird called from the forest, and the trees were shrill with 
the cricket's cry, and the stars were swarming in the sky — got the 
family around him, and taking the old Bible from the table, called 
them to their knees, the little baby hiding in the folds of its mother's 
dress, while he closed the record of the simple day by calling down 
God's benediction on that family and on that home. And while 
I gazed, the vision of that marble Capitol faded. Forgotten were 
its treasures and its majesty, and I said, "Oh, surely here in the 
homes of the people are lodged at last the strength and responsi- 
bility of this government, the hope and the promise of this re- 
public." 

— Henrv W. Grady. 



SELECTIONS 157 

36. KING ROBERT OF SICILY 

Robert of Sicily, brother of Pope Urbane 

And Valmond, Emperor of Allemaine, 

Appareled in magnificent attire, 

With retinue of many a knight and squire, 

On St. John's eve, at vespers, proudly sat 

And heard the priests chant the Magnificat. 

And as he listened, o'er and o'er again 

Repeated, like a burden or refrain, 

He caught the words, "Deposuit potentates 

De sede et exaltavit humiles;" 

And slowly lifting up his kingly head, 

He to a learned clerk beside him said, 

1 ' What mean these words ? ' ' The clerk made answer meet 
1 ' He puts down the mighty from their seat, 

And has exalted them of low degree." 

Thereat King Robert muttered scornfully, 
' 'Tis well that such seditious words are sung 

Only by priests and in the Latin tongue ; 

For unto priests and people be it known, 

There is no power can push me from my throne ! ' ' 

And leaning back, he yawned and fell asleep, 

Lulled by the chant monotonous and deep. 

When he awoke it was already night; 

The church was empty and there was no light, 

Save where the lamps, that glimmering few and faint 

Lighted a little space before some saint. 

He started from his seat and gazed around, 

But saw no living thing and heard no sound. 

He groped towards the door, but it was locked ; 

He cried aloud, and listened, and then knocked, 

And uttered awful threatenings and complaints, 

And imprecations upon men and saints, 

The sound re-echoed from the roofs and walls 

As if dead priests were laughing in their stalls. 

At length the sexton, hearing from without 
The tumult of the knocking and the shout, 



158 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

And thinking thieves were in the house of prayer, 
Came with his lantern, asking, "Who is there?" 
Half choked with rage, King Robert fiercely said, 

"Open: 'tis I, the King! Art thou afraid?" 
The frightened sexton, muttering with a curse, 

"This is some drunken vagabond, or worse!" 
Turned the great key and flung the portal wide; 
A man rushed by him at a single stride, 
Haggard, half naked, without hat or cloak, 
"Who neither turned, nor looked at him, nor spoke, 
But leaped into the blackness of the night 
And vanished like a specter from his sight. 

Robert of Sicily, brother of Pope Urbane 
And Valmond, Emperor of Allemaine, 
Despoiled of his magnificent attire, 
Bareheaded, breathless, and besprent with mire, 
With sense of wrong and outrage desperate, 
Strode on and thundered at the palace gate ; 
Rushed through the court-yard, thrusting in his rage 
To right and left each seneschal and page, 
And hurried up the broad and sounding stair, 
His white face ghastly in the torch's glare. 
From hall to hall he passed with breathless speed ; 
Voices and cries he heard, but did not heed, 
Until at last he reached the banquet room, 
Blazing with light and breathing with perfume. 

Thereon the dais sat another king, 
Wearing his robes, his crown, his signet-ring, 
King Robert's self in feature, form and height, 
But all transfigured with angelic light ! 
It was an Angel ; and his presence there 
With a divine effulgence filled the air. 

A moment speechless, motionless, amazed, 

The throneless monarch on the Angel gazed, 

Who met his look of anger and surprise 

With the divine compassion of his eyes ; 

Then said, "Who art thou? and why com'st thou here?-" 



SELECTIONS 159 

To which King Robert answered with a sneer, 
I am the King, and come to claim my own 
From an imposter, who usurps my throne ! ' ' 
And suddenly, at these audacious words, 
Up sprang the angry guests, and drew their swords ! 
The Angel answered with unruffled brow, 
: Nay, not the King, but the King's Jester, thou 
Henceforth shalt wear the bells and scalloped cape, 
And for thy counsellor shalt lead an ape ; 
Thou shalt obey my servants when they call, 
And wait upon my henchmen in the hall ! ' ' 
Deaf to King Robert 's threats and cries and prayers, 
They thrust him from the hall and down the stairs ; 
A group of tittering pages ran before, 
And as they opened wide the folding-door, 
His heart failed, for he heard, with strange alarms, 
The boisterous laughter of the men-at-arms, 
And all the vaulted chamber roar and ring 
With the mock plaudits of "Long live the King!" 

Next morning, waking with the day's first beam, 
He said within himself, ' ' It was a dream ! ' ' 
But the straw rustled as he turned his head, 
There were the cap and bells beside his bed, 
Around him rose the bare, discolored walls, 
Close by, the steeds were champing in their stalls, 
And in the corner, a revolting shape, 
Shivering and chattering sat the wretched ape. 
It was no dream ; the world he loved so much 
Had turned to dust and ashes at his touch ! 

Days came and went ; and now returned again 

To Sicily the old Saturnian reign ; 

Under the Angel's goverance benign 

The happy island danced with corn and wine, 

And deep within the mountain's burning breast 

Enceladus, the giant, was at rest. 

Meanwhile King Robert yielded to his fate, 
Sullen and silent and disconsolate, 



160 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

Dressed in the motley garb that Jesters wear, 
With look bewildered and a vacant stare, 
Close shaven above the ears, as monks are shorn, 
By courtiers mocked, by pages laughed to scorn, 
His only friend the ape, his only food 
What others left, — he still was unsubdued. 
And when the Angel met him on his way, 
And half in earnest, half in jest, would say, 
Sternly, though tenderly, that he might feel 
The velvet scabbard held a sword of steel, 
"Art thou the King?" the passion of his woe 
Burst from him in resistless overflow, 
And lifting high his forehead he would fling 
The haughty answer back, ' ' I am, I am the King ! ' ' 

Almost three years were ended ; when there came 

Ambassadors of great repute and name 

From Valmond, Emperor of Allemaine, 

Unto King Robert, saying that Pope Urbane 

By letters summons them forthwith to come 

On Holy Thursday to his city of Rome. 

The Angel with great joy received his guests, 

And gave them presents of embroidered vests, 

And velvet mantlets with rich ermine lined, 

And rings and jewels of the rarest kind. 

Then he departed with them o'er the sea 

Into the lovely land of Italy, 

Whose loveliness was more resplendent made 

By the mere passing of that cavalcade, 

With plumes, and cloaks, and housings, and the stir 

Of jeweled bridle and of golden spur. 

And lo, among the menials, in mock state, 

Upon a piebald steed, with shambling gait, 

His cloak of fox-tails flapping in the wind, 

The solemn ape demurely perched behind, 

King Robert rode, making huge merriment 

In all the country towns through which they went. 

The Pope received them with great pomp and blare 
Of bannered trumpets, on Saint Peter's square, 



SELECTIONS 161 

Giving his benediction and embrace, 
Fervent, and full of apostolic grace. 

While with congratulations and with prayers 

He entertained the Angel unawares, 

Robert, the Jester, bursting through the crowd, 

Into their presence rushed, and cried aloud, 

I am the King! Look and behold in me 

Eobert, your brother, King of Sicily ! 

This man who bears my semblance to your eyes, 

Is an imposter in a king's disguise. 

Do you not know me ? does no voice within 

Answer my cry, and say we are akin ? 

The Pope in silence, but with troubled mien, 

Gazed at the Angel's countenance serene; 

The Emperor, laughing, said, "It is strange sport 

To keep a madman for thy Fool at court!" 

And the poor baffled Jester in disgrace 

Was hustled back among the populace. 

In solemn state the Holy Week went by, 

And Easter Sunday gleamed upon the sky ; 

The presence of the Angel, with its light, 

Before the sun rose, made the city bright, 

And with new fervor filled the hearts of men, 

Who felt that Christ indeed has risen again. 

Even the Jester on his bed of straw, 

With haggard eyes the unwonted splendor saw; 

He felt within a power unfelt before, 

And kneeling humbly on his chamber floor, 

He heard the rushing garments of the Lord 

Sweep through the silent air, ascending heavenward. 

And now the visit ending and once more 
Valmond returning to the Danube's shore, 
Homeward the Angel journeyed, and again 
The land was made resplendent with his train 
Flashing along the towns of Italy 
Unto Salerno, and from thence by sea. 
And when once more within Palermo's wall, 



162 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

And seated on the throne in his great hall, 
He heard the Angelus from convent towers, 
As if a better world conversed with ours, 
He beckoned to King Robert to draw nigher, 
And with a gesture bade the rest retire ; 
And when they were alone, the Angel said, 
"Art thou the King?" Then bowing down his head, 
King Robert crossed both hands upon his breast, 
And meekly answered him: "Thou knowest best! 
My sins as scarlet are; let me go hence, 
And in some cloister's school of penitence, 
Across those stones, that pave the way to heaven, 
Walk barefoot, till my guilty soul be shriven ! ' ' 

The Angel smiled, and from his radiant face 
A holy light illumined all the place, 
And through the open window, loud and clear, 
They heard the monks chant in the chapel near, 
Above the stir and tumult of the street : 

"He has put down the mighty from their seat, 
And has exalted them of low degree ! ' ' 
And through the chant a second melody 
Rose like the throbbing of a single string: 

1 ' I am an Angel, and thou art the King ! ' ' 
King Robert, who was standing near the throne, 
Lifted his eyes, and lo ! he was alone ! 
But all appareled as in days of old, 
With ermined mantle and with cloth of gold; 
And when his courtiers came, they found him there 
Kneeling upon the floor, absorbed in silent prayer. 



37. THE SONS OF THE WIDOW 

'Ave you 'eard o' the Widow at Windsor 
With a hairy gold crown on 'er 'ead? 

She 'as ships on the foam — she 'as millions at 'ome, 
An' she pays us poor beggars in red. 
(Ow, poor beggars in red!) 

There's 'er nick on the cavalry 'orses, 



SELECTIONS 163 

There's 'er mark on the medical stores — 
An' 'er troopers you'll find with a fair wind be'ind 
That takes us to various wars. 
(Poor beggars — barbarious wars!) 
Then 'ere's to the Widow at Windsor, 
An' 'ere's to the stores an' the guns, 
The men an' the 'orses what makes up the forces 
0' Missis Victorier's sons. 

(Poor beggars! — Victorier's sons!) 

Walk wide o' the Widow at Windsor, 

For 'alf o ' creation she owns ; 
We 'ave brought 'er the same with the sword an ' the flame, 

An' we've salted it down with our bones. 
(Poor beggars! — it's blue with our bones!) 
Hands off o' the sons o' the Widow, 

Hands off o' the goods in 'er shop, 
For the Kings must come down an' the Emperors frown 

When the Widow at Windsor says ' ' Stop ! ' ' 
(Poor beggars! — we're sent to say "Stop!") 
Then 'ere's the Lodge o' the Widow, 

From the Pole to the tropics it runs — 
To the Lodge that we tile with the rank an' the file, 

An' open in forms with the guns. 

(Poor beggars! — it's always them guns!) 

We 'ave 'eard o' the Widow at Windsor 

It 's safest to let 'er alone : 
For 'er sentries we stand by the sea an ' the land 
Wherever the bugles are blown. 

(Poor beggars! — an' don't we get blown!) 
Take 'old o' the wings o' the mornin', 

An' flop round the earth till you're dead; 
But you won't get away from the tune that they play 
To the bloomin' old rag over'ead. 
(Poor beggars! — it's 'ot over'ead!) 
Then 'ere 's to the sons o ' the Widow, 

Wherever, 'owever they roam. 
'Ere's all they desire, an' if they require 
A speedy return to their 'ome. 

(Poor beggars! — they'll never see 'ome!) 

— Rudyard Kipling. 



J ? 






164 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

38. " TOMMY" 

I went into a public- 'ouse to get a pint o' beer. 
The publican 'e up an ' sez, ' ' We serve no redcoats here. : 
The girls be 'hid the bar they laughed an' giggled fit to die, 
I outs into the street again, an ' to myself sez I : 

it's Tommy this, an' Tommy that, an' " Tommy, go away 

But it's ''Thank you, Mister Atkins," when the band begins to 
Play, 

The band begins to play, my boys, the band begins to play. 

it 's ' ' Thank you, Mister Atkins, ' ' when the band begins to play. 

I went into a theater as sober as could be. 

They gave a drunk civilian room, but 'adn't none for me; 

They sent me to the gallery or round the music- 'alls, 

But when it comes to fightin" Lord they'll shove me in the stalls. 

For it's Tommy this, an' Tommy that, an' " Tommy, wait out- 
side;" 

But it's "Special train for Atkins," when the trooper's on the 
tide. 

The troopship 's on the tide, my boys, the troopship 's on the tide. 

it's "Special train for Atkins," when the trooper's on the tide. 

makin' mock o' uniforms that guard you while you sleep 
Is cheaper than them uniforms, an' they're starvation cheap; 
An' hustlin' drunken sodgers when they're goin' large a bit 
Is five times better business than paradin' in full kit. 

Then it's Tommy this, an' Tommy that, an' "Tommy, 'ow's yer 
soul?" 

But it's "Thin red line of 'eroes" when the drums begin to roll, 

The drums begin to roll, my boys, the drums begin to roll. 

It 's a " Thin red line of 'eroes ' ' when the drums begin to roll. 

We aren 't no thin red 'eroes, nor we aren 't no blackguards too, 
But single men in barricks, most remarkable like you ; 
An' if sometimes our conduck isn't all your fancy paints, 
Why, single men in barricks don't grow into plaster saints. 

While it's Tommy this, an' Tommy that, an' "Tommy, fall 
be'ind" 



SELECTIONS 165 

But it's "Please to walk in front, sir/' when there's trouble in 

the wind. 
There's trouble in the wind, my boys, there's trouble in the wind. 
An' it's "Please to walk in front, sir," when there's trouble in 

the wind. 

You talk o' better food for us, an' schools, an' fires, an' all: 
"We'll wait for extry rations if you treat us rational, 
Don't mess about the cook-room slops, but prove it to our face 
The "Widow's uniform is not the soldier-man's disgrace. 

For it's Tommy this, an' Tommy that, an' "Chuck him out, the 
brute!' 

But it's "Savior of 'is country" when the guns begin to shoot; 

An' it's Tommy this, an' Tommy that, an' anything you please, 

An' Tommy ain't a bloomin' fool — you bet that Tommy sees! 

— Rudyard Kipling. 

39. THE GOLDEN ARM 

(Ghost Story) 

Once upon a time dey wuz a monsus mean man, en he live way 
out in de prairie all 'lone by hisself, 'cep'n he had a wife. En 
bimeby she died, en he tuck en toted her way out dah in he prairie 
en buried her. Well, she had a golden arm — all solid gold, fum 
de shoulder down. He wuz pow'ful mean — pow'ful; en dat night 
he coudln 't sleep caze he want dat golden arm so bad. 

When it came midnight he couldn't stan' it no mor'; so he git 
up, he did, en tuck his lantern en shoved out throo de storm en 
dug her up en got he golden arm; en he bent his head down 'gin 
de win', en plowed en plowed en plowed throo de snow. Den all 
of a sudden he stop (make a considerable pause here, and look 
startled, and take a listening attitude) en say: "My Ian', what's 
dat!" 

En he listen — en listen — en de win' say (set your teeth together 
and imitate the wailing and wheezing singsong of the wind,) 

Bzzz-z-zzz ' ' — an ' den, way back yonder whah de grave is, he heah 
a voice ! — he hear a voice all mix ' up in de win ' — can 't hardly tell 
'em 'part — ' ' Bzzz-z-zz — W-h-o — g-o-t — m-y — g-o-l-d-e-n — arm f — zzz 
— zzz — W-h-o g-o-t m-y g-o-l-d-e-n arm?" (You must begin to 
shiver violently now.) 
12 



166 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

En he begin to shiver en shake, en say, "Oh, my ! Oh, my Ian' !" 
en de win ' blow de lantern out, en de snow en sleet blow in his face 
en mos' choke him, en he start a-plowin' knee-deep towards home 
mos' dead, he so sk'yerd — en pooty soon he hear de voice agin, en 
(pause) it 'us comin' after him! Bzzz-zzz-zzz W-h-o — g-o-t — m-y 
— g-o-l-d-e-n — arm ? ' ' 

When he git to de pasture he hear it agin — eloster now, en 
a,-comin'! — a-comin' back dah in de dark en de storm — (repeat the 
wind and the voice). When he git to de house he rush up-stairs 
en jump in de bed en kiver up, head and years, en lay dah shiverin , 
en shakin' — en den way out dah he hear it agin! — en a comin'! 
En bimeby he hear (pause — awed, listening attitude) — pat — pat — 
pat — hit's a comin' up-stairs! Den he hear de latch, en he know 
it's in de room. 

Den pooty soon he know it's a-stannin' by de bed! (Pause.) 
Den — he know it's a-bendin f down over him — en he cain't skasely 
git his breath ! Den — den — he seem to feel someth 'n c-o-l-d, right 
down 'most agin his head. (Pause.) 

Den de voice say, right at his ear — "W-h-o — g-o-t — m-y — g-o-l-d- 
e-n — arm" (You must wail it out very plaintively and accusingly; 
then you stare steadily and impressively into the face of the 
farthest-gone auditor — a girl, preferably — and let the awe-ispiring 
pause begin to build itself in the deep hush. When it has reached 
exactly the right length, jump suddenly at that girl and yell, 
"You've got it!" 

If you've got the Pause right, she'll fetch a dear little yelp and 
spring right out of her shoes. But you must get the pause right ; 
and you will find it the most troublesome and aggravating and un- 
certain thing you ever undertook. 

— Mark Twain. 



APPENDIX 



1. LANGUAGE 

From Judd's Psychology 

Theory that Language is a Special Creation. 

The question of the origin of language is a question which has 
been much discussed and variously answered from the earliest 
times. Language is so distinctly a human function that it has 
often been regarded as a special endowment of man, given to him 
by special creation. 

The Special Creation Theory Gives Way to Naturalistic Expla- 
nations. 

The special creation theory of the origin of language ignores, 
however, certain facts which are too obvious to be set aside. It 
ignores the fact that animals have the ability to make certain vocal 
sounds which they utilize for purposes of communication with each 
other. We cannot explain how it is that animals have modes of 
expression so closely related to human language without, at the 
same time, recognizing the natural origin of language itself. Fur- 
thermore, the processes of human expression are constantly under- 
going changes and developments which are so natural and so 
definite in their character that it seems improbable that language 
ever failed to exhibit development. If the principles under which 
language as we know it is developing, can be ascertained, it is 
reasonable to project these laws back of the historical period and 
to assume that the beginnings of language were also under the 
regular laws of development. The creation theory has, therefore, 
gradually given way to various theories which attempt to give a 
naturalistic explanation of language. 

The Imitation Theory Only a Partial Explanation. 

It has sometimes been held that language originated from the 
tendency to imitate sounds. This theory, while it would explain 
certain of the special forms of words, cannot give any adequate 
account of the way in which an imitating individual develops the 
power to use his imitations for purposes of speech. There are a 
number of different animals that are capable of a wide range of 
imitation, but they have never developed a language, as has man. 

169 



170 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

This is clear evidence that the essence of language is not to be found 
in imitation, but rather in the use to which the imitative power 
is put. 

The Interjection Theory Also Partial. 

It has also been suggested that language developed out of the 
interjections which man naturally used in his most primitive stage 
of development. If he was astonished by any sudden stimulation, 
he naturally gave forth ejaculations in response to the sudden ex- 
citation. These ejaculations, it is said, came gradually to have the 
character of the situations to which they belonged and ultimately 
to serve the purposes of communication. Here again, the objection 
to the theory is not that it seems improbable that man began with 
simple forms of expression, but the theory does not explain how 
these simple forms of expression acquired a meaning and im- 
portance which they did not have at the beginning. What is 
needed, rather than a formal description of the first expressions 
used by primitive man, is a consistent psychological explanation 
of how the ejaculations came to have significance for mental life 
and to serve as a vehicle for elaborate thought processes. 

Language Has Its Roots in Natural Emotional Expressions and 
Their Imitation. 

The psychological explanation of language must begin with a 
general reference to the statements made in earlier chapters. Every 
sensory stimulation arouses some form of bodily activity. The 
muscles of the organs of circulation are the muscles of the limbs, 
as well as other internal and external muscles, are constantly en- 
gaged in making responses to external stimuli. Among the mus- 
cles of the body which with the others are involved in expressive 
activities are the muscles which control the organs of respiration. 
There can be no stimulation of any kind which does not affect more 
or less the character of the movements of inspiration and expira- 
tion. In making these general statements, we find no necessity for 
distinguishing between the animals and man ; so far as the general 
facts of relation between sensations and expression are concerned, 
they have like characteristics. That an air-breathing animal should 
produce sounds through irregularities in its respiratory movements 
when it is excited by an external stimulus, especially if that stim- 
ulus is violent, is quite as natural as that its hair should rise when 
it is afraid or that its muscles should tremble when it is aroused 
to anger or to flight. 



APPENDIX 171 

Activity Becomes a Means of Communication First Through Im- 
itation. 

The important step in the development of language is the ac- 
quirement of the ability to use the movements of the vocal cords 
for purposes other than those of individual emotional expression. 
The acquirement of this ability is a matter of long evolution and 
depends in its first stages upon imitation. The function of imita- 
tion as a means of communication between animals appears as soon 
as animals begin to live in packs or herds or other social groups. 

The Imitative Communication of Animals and Man Are of Great 
Variety. 

So far as communication through imitation is concerned, there 
is no reason why attention should be confined exclusively to the 
forms of activity which result in sounds. All animals imitate the 
activities of other members of their species on a very large scale. 
The stampede of a herd of cattle is an excellent illustration of 
the importance of the tendency toward imitation. The frightened 
animal which starts the stampede does not consciously purpose to 
communicate its fright to the other members of the herd; it is 
performing a natural act of its individual life. Incidentally, it 
affects all those about it by arousing in them a violent form of 
imitative activity. The stampeding herd may have no conscious- 
ness whatever of the original cause of fear in one of its members; 
the real cause of the stampede and of the resulting excitement in 
the herd is the example of the one frightened animal. Thus we see 
that the activity of an animal takes on, because of the re-action of 
its social environment, a significance which the original act never 
could have had unless it had been imitated. 

The Value of Sound As Means of Socal Communication. 

What is true o factivity in general is true of activities which 
result in sounds. The sound produced by the activities of the vocal 
cords can impress itself readily upon the ears of some other animal, 
more readily by far than the visual impression of trembling or of 
general muscular tension. If, now, the animal which hears the 
sound has itself produced this sound or one closely resembling it in 
quality and intensity, there will be a natural tendency for the 
sound stimulation to arouse in the second animal a sympathetic 
response. Witness the tendency of all of the dogs in a community 



172 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

to bark together or of all the roosters to begin crowing together when 
one gives the signal. The result of imitating the sound will be to 
throw the imitating animal into an emotional state very similar to 
that of the animal which first made the noise. This result will be 
more likely to follow if the two animals are closely related in their 
organization and types of activity. There will be relatively less 
tendency to sympathize with an animal of entirely different organ- 
ization and habits, for the activity aroused through imitation in 
the listening animal will not agree in character with the activity 
of the animal which sets the example. Thus, one can judge from 
his own experience that there is very little possibility of arousing 
in a human being the exact state which appears in dogs or cats 
through imitation of the sounds which they produce. In general, 
imitation of sound is valuable as a means of arousing sympathy 
only between aniamls sufficiently related to each other to have 
similar modes of producing sound. 

Animal Language Communicates Only Attitudes. 

Given the similarity of organization which makes imitated sounds 
significant, we have a type of communication provided, which is 
widely utilized in the animal world. The food calls and the danger 
signals of birds are significant to other members of the flock. 
Such calls have definite natural relations to the organized responses 
of all members of the species. It is to be noted that these calls do 
not constitute a language in the sense in which human sounds con- 
stitute a language, for the bird calls are incapable of conveying 
definite ideas, such as ideas of the kind of food or the particular 
kind of danger discovered by the animal which makes the sound. 
The sounds serve merely to arouse certain attitudes. An animal 
can fly away and can induce in its fellows a like tendency to fear 
and flight, by means of cries which in the history of each member 
of the flock, have been associated with fear, but the animal can go 
no further in its communications than to express its own natural 
tendencies and corresponding attitudes. 

The First Stages of Human Articulation Are Like An Animal Cries. 
There are stages of human infancy which are closely related to 
the stages of animal life thus far described. The human infant 
does not at first make sounds as the result of any conscious desire 
to communicate its feelings to those about it, much less does it use 



APPENDIX 173 

its sounds for verbal discussion of the details of its conscious ex- 
periences. The infant makes noises exactly as it swings its arms 
and legs, because the muscular contractions which produce these 
noises are instinctive motor expressions related through heredity 
to the stimuli which arouse them. 

Later there appears a strong tendency to imitate others of its 
own kind, and this imitation may serve to put the infant in some 
contact with its social environment, and give it a medium of com- 
munication comparable in character to that which we find in 
animals. This is not language, however, for imitation alone is not 
enough to develop language. Further processes must take place 
before the full development is effected. 

Articulations Are Selected from the Sum of Possible Activities. 

While imitation applies to many different forms of activity, 
such as those of the limbs or face, a moment's consideration will 
make it clear that the activities which produce sounds have a 
number of unique advantages as vehicles of imitative communica- 
tion. The ability to produce sounds depends largely upon the 
animal itself and very little upon external conditions. Contrast 
sound with visual impressions. Visual impressions are cut off in 
the dark; they are cut off by intervening objects, and by a turn- 
ing of the head of the observer. Sounds travel wherever there is 
air; they are as easy to produce in darkness as in daylight; they 
can easily be varied in intensity. For these reasons they come to 
be the chief means of social communication, even among the an- 
imals. The result is that the vocal cords and the ability to dis- 
criminate sounds are highly developed long before the development 
of language proper. 

Sounds Became Language in the Proper Sense Through Association 
with Ideas. 

The advance which human language makes beyond animal com- 
munication consists in the fact that human language relates sounds 
to ideas as well as to emotional attitudes. How man came to take 
this step cannot be understood apart from the general fact that in 
every respect human mental development was and is of the idea- 
tional, rather than of the direct perceptual type. 



174 PRINCIPLES OF SPEAKING 

The Ability to Use Language and to Deal with Ideas Developed 
Together. 

The inquiry is involved at this point in a perplexing circle. 
Human mental processes as we know them are intimately related 
to language. Even when we think about our own most direct 
experiences, we use words. When we enlarge our associations, we 
usually do so with the aid of words. Yet these words do not seem 
at all explicable except when we assume complex ideational pro- 
cesses as the necessary conditions for their development and inter- 
pretation. Did human mental advance result from the development 
of language, or did language result from the development of asso- 
ciational processes? The only answer to this question is to say 
that language and ideational processes developed together and are 
necessary to each other. So long as animals were absorbed in 
direct responses to the demands of their environment, their mental 
complexes were of a direct, primitive type, and stimulations issued 
into direct motor channels with relatively little possibility of idea- 
tonal organization. 

As soon as a type of response developed which was indirect, 
there was a complete change in the general mode of bodily and 
conscious organization. Attention was turned to many objects 
in the environment which had at an earlier stage little or no value 
for individual life, because there was no appropriate mode of di- 
rect activity which could be applied to them. Speech is a uni- 
versal mode of expressive reaction and makes it possible for one 
who possesses it to react in discriminating fashion upon anything. 
Thus, if one has different names for two objects which resemble 
each other closely, he will be aided in discriminating them through 
the use of the different verbal reactions to them. Speech is, ac- 
cordingly both a product of ideation and an aid to its development. 

Muscular Activities Involved in Articulation Are Indirect. 

Nothing can emphasize the fact that language is related to 
indirect ideational processes more than the selection of the vocal 
cords for the execution of speech reactions. The vocal cords are, 
more than any other active organs, wholly useless for direct adapta- 
tions. Those natural expressive gestures which were common 
among primitive men very soon gave way as means of communi- 
cation after the development of movements of articulation. The 
reason for this is clear in view of the fact that the hands and 



APPENDIX 175 

grosser muscles are constantly in use in the direct practical activ- 
ities of life. When two individuals wish to communicate with 
each other, it is often extremely inconvenient to suspend all other 
activity, to lay down what one may be carrying, to come where one 
may be clearly seen, for the purpose of holding a parley. The 
vocal cords, on the other hand, are not required for the practical 
purposes of life. They are easily disconnected in their action from 
the general mass of the muscles and, therefore, very naturally be- 
came the organs for a system of responses indirect in character 
and value as compared with the practical responses of the other 
muscles. 

Language a Development of Natural Tendencies. 

When human language is thus viewed as a selection of the 
activities of the vocal cords from the sum total of the expressive 
activities, and as a series of associations of articulations and sounds 
with ideational processes, it becomes evident that the studies of 
language are at once placed upon a naturalistic foundation. The 
various forms of articulation may be studied exactly as other 
forms of reaction are studied. The habits of articulation in an 
individual or a race are recognized as matters of motor coordination. 
The special forms of words are matters of accidental associations 
and may depend on the greatest variety of circumstances. Thus, 
it is equally possible for a word to originate in the imitation of a 
sound produced by an animal or by another human being, or in an 
ejaculation which is a purely personal reaction. The source of the 
sound is of no great importance; the association into which the 
sound is taken up is what renders it significant. The essential 
conclusion for psychology is that language is a system of indirect 
social forms of reaction, associated with complex ideational 
processes. 



17 6 NOTES 



tfiJa'27 



NOTES 177 



178 NOTES 



NOTES 179 



180 NOTES 



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